Read "A New Vision for High-Quality Preschool Curriculum" at NAP.edu (2024)

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-2 4 Developing High-Quality, Equitable Preschool Curricula As summarized in Chapters 2 and 3, preschool curriculum plays a critical role in shapinginstructional quality, classroom processes, and children’s early learning during a unique windowof opportunity for development. Curriculum identifies the content children are to learn, the goalsfor children’s learning and development, intentional teaching strategies, and needed instructionalmaterials. Although there is clear agreement that children should engage in reading, writing,mathematics, science, and social studies beginning in the primary grades (Bruner, 1985; NationalCouncil for the Social Studies, 2013; NGACCSSO and NGA, 2010), debate is ongoing about theamount of attention that should be given to learning academic content in these subject matterareas in preschool (Zigler et al., 2011). The preschool years and preschool experiences are aperiod when strong foundational skills that affect developmental trajectories can be built;however, many children face societal inequities during this period. As stressed throughout thisreport, the available research evidence points to the importance of adopting strengths-basedapproaches to understand the varied backgrounds and experiences of young children and theways in which those contexts shape the way they learn to establish a strong foundation forlifelong learning. This chapter identifies the essential components and characteristics of equitable preschoolcurriculum for all children based on the strongest available evidence of the efficacy of existingcurricula. In essence, these criteria constitute the committee’s new vision for high-qualitypreschool curriculum. The chapter describes these criteria in detail, along with a list of keyquestions for decision makers to consider. Importantly, the committee calls for early childhoodeducators to reject the false dichotomies that plague the field and narrow perspectives oncurriculum and its potential benefits. A summary of research on different curriculum types andapproaches is included. The chapter then presents a continuum of curriculum types and the rolesof educators in implementing them. A major purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance forcurriculum developers in order to increase the quality and availability of research-based,validated curricula necessary to achieve the committee’s new vision for every child. The chapterconsiders who develops curriculum, how the process varies according to curriculum type, andspecific considerations for developing curriculum in the content domains. A description ofeducative curriculum follows. Such curricula are designed to support the learning anddevelopment of teachers as well as children, particularly in the content domains. Educativecurricula are especially valuable because children from minoritized communities too often haveless qualified teachers who may not have been prepared to teach the content domains, a situationthat perpetuates inequitable opportunities to learn. The chapter concludes with a discussion of Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-3research-based and validated preschool curricula, followed by a framework for curriculumdevelopment and evaluation. MOVING BEYOND FALSE DICHOTOMIES False dichotomies are common in the early education field (e.g., Clements & Sarama,2014b; Merkley & Ansari, 2018). Many discussions, even by experts (e.g., Kagan & Reid, 2022)tend to phrase issues as tensions between two mutually exclusive alternatives, such as playversus content teaching or academics versus teaching the “whole child” (Zigler et al., 2011).Other such dichotomies include scripts versus teacher autonomy; constrained versusnonconstrained goals, lower or higher-level skills, family-to-classroom versus classroom-to-family engagement (Kagan & Reid, 2022), and those listed below: Play–––––––Academics Emergent–––––––Highly scripted Child-initiated–––––––Teacher-directed Exploratory–––––––Content-focused Comprehensive/whole child–––––––Domain-specific Active Learning–––––––Passive acquisition Investigatory–––––––Didactic Social-emotional–––––––Cognitive Spontaneous–––––––Deliberate Out-of-School Language and Reasoning–––––––School-based Language and ReasoningThese dichotomies may overgeneralize simple contrasts, without considering compromise oreven a positive synthesis. False dichotomies such as these are based on either/or thinking, which assumes there isone right answer to highly complex questions. Resolving the tensions and complexities inherentin educational decisions requires rejecting these false dichotomies and moving from either/or toboth/and thinking (Bredekamp & Willer, 2022) that also considers multiple ways of thinking ofdifferent cultural groups as well as individual children (Bouttee, 2015; Souto-Manning, 2023;Souto-Manning et al., 2019; Wright & Counsell, 2018). Both/and thinking requires theapplication of diverse perspectives and consideration of several possible answers to complexquestions. Perhaps the most unfortunate false dichotomy is “play versus academics.” As describedin Chapter 3, children learn a great deal through play (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 2008; Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009), including social skills and emotional competencies, language, literacy, STEM(science, technology, engineering, mathematics), and other content areas (e.g., Sarama &Clements, 2009a; Weisberg et al., 2015; Zosh et al., 2018). Although beneficial, a researchreview investigated whether pretend play is critical for the development of various domains, or ifit is but one of many routes to positive development, or simply an epiphenomenon of otherroutes (Lillard et al., 2013). For executive function and social skills, for example, research didnot strongly support the critical cause view, but does not differentiate between the other two. For Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-4other domains, such as reasoning and problem solving, there was little to suggest play is thecausal factor. More research on play’s specific role is needed (Lillard et al., 2013). A more recentexperiment, however, provided evidence that pretend play tutoring (teacher involvement outsideof, or commenting on, and inside of, play) led to gains in social behavior skills but not socio-emotional development (Jaggy et al., 2023).This study illustrates that play may be powerfuldevelopmentally if the environment, interactions, and specific activities are introduced or guidedby teachers. Supplementing this approach with awareness of systemic bias may be more effective.Such playful learning can include whole- and small-group activities, specific learning centers,and outdoor play. Introducing such intentionality through curricula has been shown statisticallyand practically to have significant positive effects on preschoolers learning in the United Statesand internationally (e.g., Clements, Sarama, Layzer, et al., 2020; Dockett & Perry, 2010; Fisheret al., 2013; Helenius, 2018; Lewis Presser et al., 2015; Sarama & Clements, 2009a; Schmitt etal., 2018; Størksen et al., 2023; Taner Derman et al., 2020). In many instances, however, teachingacademics is pitted against developmentally appropriate practice, a view that underestimateschildren’s competence and denies them challenging curriculum (Bredekamp & Joseph, 2024, p.140; see also Sullivan et al., 2015). The key is to make academic content meaningful andengaging for young children, which is often not the case, particularly for children living in low-income communities and those who are members of historically marginalized groups (Adair &Colegrove, 2021; Boutte, 2024; Early et al., 2010; Malik et al., 2018; NASEM, 2023; Souto-Manning, 2018; Wright & Counsell, 2018). Families and early childhood educators alike express concern that young children’sopportunities for play and social-emotional learning may be stifled when early educationexperiences focus on academic content. These concerns are legitimate when methods forsupporting content learning are inappropriate for young children. For example, there are missedopportunities in preschool for children to explore and learn content through engaging, playfullearning experiences in which children have autonomy and agency to approach problems andseek solutions, and in ways that integrate different content areas into interdisciplinary learningexperiences. To leverage these opportunities, educators and developers need to move beyonddichotomizing these complex issues and embrace both/and thinking (Bredekamp & Willer, 2022)while also integrating other views and perspectives beyond Eurocentric notions. Research makesclear that, given such appropriate pedagogy, tailored for young children’s optimal ways oflearning, preschoolers can learn across academic domains throughout early childhood with nonegative effects on other developmental domains (e.g., Le et al., 2019). During the first five years of life, then, content learning can occur in ways that arealigned with developmentally appropriate practice (NAEYC, 2022), and can includeopportunities for play and playful activities (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009; Weisberg et al., 2015; Zoshet al., 2018). Because content instruction has too often been limited, neglected, or conductedinappropriately in the years before formal schooling (e.g., Brosterman, 1997; Clements, Fuson, etal., 2019; National Academies of Sciences, 2022; Zigler et al., 2011), research points to theimportance of intentionally teaching for children aged 3–5 (Burchinal et al., 2022). Another dichotomy, constrained versus nonconstrained goals, also termed lower- versushigher-level skills, further illustrates the need for synthesis. For example, important constrained Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-5goals in preschool include attaining alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness, while anonconstrained goal is learning vocabulary. Teaching only nonconstrained, higher-level skillsmay be counterproductive given that lower-level knowledge may be necessary for the effectivelearning and use of higher-level processes, perhaps especially in hierarchical content domainssuch as mathematics (e.g., Clements & Sarama, 2021; Hartman et al., 2023; Piasta, 2023; Xu etal., 2023) and also in early literacy (Roberts et al., 2019). Further, researchers of color haveargued that privileging higher- over lower-level skills and knowledge may not serve the needs ofsome communities because they have not had equitable opportunities to learn those skills andattain that knowledge (Delpit, 1988, 2013). Therefore, it is crucial for developers of high-qualitypreschool curricula to consider how they can support both differentiation and meaningfulsynthesis of goals and skills when appropriate (Clements et al., 2011; Mulligan et al., 2020), witha focus on specific goals for individual children when appropriate. An important caveat is thatcontent hierarchies intrinsic to the domains’ structures do not privilege “school-based” ways ofrepresenting and processing content but recognize knowledge gained from everyday and out-of-school environments and experiences (Banks, 1993, 1995). Different cultural groups’ andindividuals’ ways of understanding and building knowledge are not only valid but may also becomplementary. Thus, it is critical to consider the hierarchical process of learning in somedomains and the continuum of learning in varied contexts. Finally, a pedagogical false dichotomy is between direct, or teacher initiated, instructionand other approaches to teaching, such as inquiry. A research review in Science suggested thatthe latter are more effective in teaching concepts, but that the choice of a pedagogical strategyshould depend on the goals of instruction and the learners’ needs (de Jong et al., 2023) (Seechapter 3 for a discussion of the ways in which children learn). Most of the time, moreover, acombination of approaches featuring active thinking and learning on the part of the child andintentional, direct instruction where required is recommended (de Jong et al., 2023): …theoretical purity is less important than a consideration of all relevant theories and empirical work. The complexity of the field often creates a Babel of disciplines…in which the lack of communication prevents progress. This is one conceit curriculum developers can ill afford. Instead, they must meld academic issues and practical teaching demands no less than a serious consideration of what researchers and teachers from other philosophical positions experience and report. This does not imply inconsistent positions. It does imply that overzealous applications (often misinterpretations and overgeneralizations) can limit practical effectiveness. As merely one illustration, constructivism does not imply that practice is not necessary and does not dictate specific pedagogical practices (Clements, 2008, p. 615). CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULUM Effective use of curricula is one of the most important determinants of quality inpreschool education (Yoshikawa et al., 2013). This section describes the committee’s vision for Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-6high-quality, equitable pre-K curriculum. These criteria derive from the committee’s review ofthe evidence, with special consideration of the needs of historically marginalized groups ofchildren, including Black, Latine, and Indigenous children; multilingual learners; children withdisabilities or developmental delays; and children experiencing poverty. To some extent, thesecriteria are consistent with the Office of Head Start’s criteria for effective, comprehensivecurricula. Head Start’s online Curriculum Consumer Report evaluates and rates curriculum(Head Start Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center (ECLKC), 2020). A recent guidefrom the U.S. Department of Education’s What Works Clearinghouse guide also containsrecommendations relevant to the development of high-quality curricula (Burchinal et al., 2022). Ensuring Equity The overarching goal of this report is to provide guidance for achieving equitablelearning and developmental outcomes for all preschool children (Curenton, Iruka & Durden,2017; also see Chapters 1, 5, 6, and 7).The committee defines equity as the goal and process ofensuring that everyone has a fair opportunity to thrive which requires valuing all individuals’ andpopulations’ equality, fully recognizing systemic racism and oppression, and rectifying historicaland contemporary structural injustices, systemic biases, and oppression, and providing resourcesand supports accordingly (Curenton et al., 2017; Jones, 204; Muhammad, 2023). In short, equitydoes not mean equal or the same. Rather, achieving equitable outcomes for young children,especially for the historically marginalized groups listed above, requires that educators have highexpectations for every child and that curriculum itself meets high standards and addresseshistorical patterns of bias and other forms of inequity. Curricula must promote growth andachievement in all content and developmental domains, as well as children’s positive self-identity, sense of belonging, and agency across domains (Wagner, 2023). To this end, curriculummust be developed for the rich diversity of the population of preschool children and adaptable forthe unique strengths and needs of each individual child. Importantly, preschool curricula whosekey characteristic is effectively promoting high-quality teaching and learning have beenvalidated as achieving equitable outcomes (e.g., Clements et al., 2011; Lillard et al., 2023). Of primary concern, therefore, is that equity needs to be a fundamental, substantivecomponent of any high-quality curriculum. Accordingly, it is essential for curriculum developersto ensure that curriculum is designed for and accessible to all children and their teachers(Clements, Vinh, et al., 2021; Gersten et al., 2005; Hebbeler & Spiker, 2016; National Academiesof Sciences, 2017, 2018a, 2022; National Research Council, 2001b, 2009; Sanders et al., 2007;Yoon & Martin, 2019).Children Living in Poverty Children from communities that have been historically marginalized, including thoseliving in poverty, do not have the same type of access to high-quality preschool and programexperiences compared to their peers (NASEM, 2023). For example, previous research has shownthat low-income children are less likely to be enrolled in high-quality preschool, compared totheir peers from higher-income households (i.e., 18% compared to 29%) (Nores and Barnett,2014). And additional evidence points to the likelihood that classrooms with lower quality (i.e., Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-7structural and process measures) will serve a higher percentage of children from low-incomecommunities and families (Aguiar & Aguiar, 2020; Bassok & Galdo, 2016; Friedman-Krauss etal., 2014; Valentino, 2018). Therefore, curricula development must consider the accessibility ofcontent as well as the resources available to all children and teachers.Children with Disabilities High-quality curricula are designed for inclusive settings with evidence-basedadaptations and accommodations embedded throughout to facilitate the active engagement andlearning of children with disabilities. Therefore, adaptations and effective supports for childrenwith identified disabilities need to be incorporated from the earliest stages of curriculumdevelopment (Clements, Vinh, et al., 2021; Steinbrenner et al., 2022). Accomplishing this can bechallenging for early childhood curriculum development and teaching, however, becausehistorically, the emphasis has been on creating general supportive environments that facilitateand enhance children’s development (Grisham & Hemmeter, 2017), whereas special educationhas sometimes emphasized individualized approaches to children with disabilities. Instead, high-quality curricula include and provide support for teachers for a blended approach—integration ofpractices that can be used to address the needs of all children in inclusive settings. That is, theneeds of individual children with disabilities are integrated into the classroom’s activities androutines so that all children can be meaningfully included in each educational experience(Grisham & Hemmeter, 2017). Beyond that inclusion, it is critical to attend to the inequities in special education from anintersectional perspective, such as the over-categorization of Black and Latine children intospecial education (Harry & Klingner, 2006), particularly those categories viewed as low status(e.g., intellectual disability) compared to high status (e.g., autism, ADHD) (Skrtic et al., 2021).In addition, the role of bias in procedures or assessments used to make those decisions must beattended to.Culturally Responsive and Linguistically Affirming Pedagogy Culturally responsive and linguistically affirming pedagogy and discourse practices areconsidered foundational (e.g., Durden & Curenton, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 1994, 1995; Lee etal., 1990; O’Brien et al., 2023; Sanders et al., 2007). High-quality curricula achieve this goal byincluding all children and cultures, thus having universal impact while reducing disparities inoutcomes across groups based on advantage (Watts et al., 2023). An essential component of equity-driven preschool classrooms is the provision ofculturally and linguistically responsive, relevant, and affirming educational materials. Suchcurriculum materials are necessary if educators are to provide equity-focused teaching andlearning experiences for all children. A recent report entitled The Representation of SocialGroups in U.S. Educational Materials and Why It Matters (Armstrong, 2022) synthesizes theresults of 160 studies on this topic. Although most involved older children and youth, the resultshave implications for developers of pre-K curricula as well. For example, culturally responsivematerials have been found to improve self-identity and enhance active engagement andmotivation to learn. Use of culturally relevant picture books and children’s literature with Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-8children in the primary grades has been found to positively support children’s language andliteracy development (Brooks & Browne, 2012; Fleming et al., 2015; Loflink & Loya, 2010b).Multilingual Learners High-quality curricula address the specific strengths and needs of multilingual learnersand promote early bilingualism (Durán et al., 2010; National Academies of Sciences, 2017;Sandhofer & Uchikoshi, 2013). One study, for example, found that Spanish-speakingpreschoolers made significant gains in their emergent literacy skills in both Spanish and Englishin a domain-specific language and literacy curriculum, and these gains were greater than those ofa control group using a comprehensive curriculum. English-only and Spanish-to-Englishtransitional versions of the curriculum were equally effective for English language outcomes, butfor Spanish-language outcomes, only the transitional model was effective (Farver et al., 2009).Similarly, a two-way immersion (TWI) program using a comprehensive curriculum andalternating between English and Spanish weekly and a comparison English immersion programled to similar gains in language, literacy, and mathematics (Barnett et al., 2007). However, theTWI program also improved the Spanish language development of multilingual learners andnative English-speaking children without losses in English language learning (Barnett et al.,2007). Supportive curricula include goals of emergent bilingualism for multilingual learners andadaptations of instructional practices that scaffold language development and comprehension, aswell as materials and learning experiences that accurately reflect and build on the cultures andlanguages of multilingual children and their families.Antibias Pedagogy Although some curricula are designed to promote culturally responsive instruction, recentliterature highlights the need to go further and actively practice antibias and anti-racist pedagogy(Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2020; NAEYC, 2019) (See chapter 5 of this report). Antibiaseducation extends beyond celebrating diversity, infusing everything that happens in a program—including interactions among teachers, children, families, and administrators—and shaping howthe curriculum is implemented every day (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2020). Antibiasinstruction fulfills four distinct goals: (1) support for children’s development of a confident senseof identity without needing to feel superior to others, (2) ease with and respect for humandiversity, (3) a sense of fairness and justice, and (4) the skills of empowerment and the ability totake action and stand up for oneself or others (NAEYC, 2019). In concert with antibiaseducation, anti-racist education seeks to interrogate White privilege, power, and epistemology inlearning by “acknowledging and addressing the primacy of race in education and socialrelations” (Escayg, 2020, p. 5). Escayg (2020) underscore three core principles of anti-racisteducation: (1) acknowledging the dominant discourse and power in centering one perspective inearly childhood systems, which influences teaching curricula and guidelines (2) using astrengths-based perspective embedded with historical and cultural knowledge about practicesrelated to families and parenting and (3) “unsettling and unmasking the white racial frame” byacknowledge the role of Eurocentric perspectives on knowledge and interactions “…that operateon intellectual, emotional, and social levels, including within institutional contexts such as themedia and schools (Wingfield & Feagin, 2013)” (Escyag, 2020, p. 10). Curricula can support Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-9such goals, but achieving anti-bias instruction requires the inclusion of non-dominantperspectives, voices, and knowledge in the conceptualization of teaching, learning, guidelines,and what constitutes best practices (Allen et al., 2021 Escayg, 2020; Iruka, et al., 2023). Beyond curriculum per se, achieving culturally responsive instruction requirescomprehensive interventions that involve all parties and all aspects of schools and homes. Anexample is an intervention in elementary grades (not pre-K) emphasizing professionaldevelopment and school-wide planning and implementation that successfully decreased racialdisparities in school discipline for Black students (McIntosh et al., 2021). Likewise, a preschoolintervention using the Pyramid model 7 (described later in this chapter) addressed behavioralissues without the use of suspension and expulsion, which affect Black children at more thanthree times the rate experienced by other children (Fox, Strain, & Dunlap, 2021, see also Vinh etal., 2016). Again, professional development and school leadership and teamwork were the coreof the intervention, layered onto extant curricula. There is a critical need for research to explorewhether such interventions can be supported by and incorporated into preschool curricula. Forexample, a specific curriculum for reducing exclusionary discipline practices was implementedsuccessfully with middle school students, but there is little evidence that such systemic problemscan be addressed in preschool curricula (Nese et al., 2021).Language and Early Literacy Although interactive book reading is one of the most effective ways to promote youngchildren’s language learning and early literacy (Institute of Education Sciences, 2007; Zucker etal., 2013), the quality and cultural relevance of the materials matter. Rudine Sims Bishop (1990)first identified the critical need for books and curriculum materials that, metaphorically, providechildren with “mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors.” In mirror books, children see all theiridentities—their race, ethnicity, culture, language, socioeconomic background,abilities/disabilities, families, and communities—represented positively and accurately (TrotmanScott et al., 2018; Wright et al., 2022). In mirror books, diverse characters exercise agency andeffect change in the world around them (Fleming et al., 2015). Window books provide windowson the world, enabling all children to learn about people, places, and events. Window books arenecessary because every child needs to read books that fully depict the diversity of the world andthe accomplishments and agency of diverse people. Books should also provide sliding glassdoors for children to exercise their imaginations, envision new experiences, enter the worldcreated by the author, and gain vital background information, all necessary abilities for laterreading comprehension (Duke, 2019). Books and other curriculum resources communicate who is valued and how peopleshould be treated. Children from historically marginalized groups, especially those who areBlack, Indigenous, and Latine, need books and materials with positive images that counteract theracism, stereotypes, and biases they experience every day. By contrast, books and other 7 (The Pyramid Model for Promoting Social Emotional Competence in Infants and Young Children is a “positivebehavioral intervention and support framework to help early educators build skills for supporting nurturing andresponsive caregiving, create learning environments, provide targeted social-emotional skills, and support childrenwith challenging behavior” (National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations, n.d.). Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-10curriculum resources can reinforce biases by omitting, devaluing, or presenting negative imagesof children, their families, and communities (Armstrong, 2021). Recently, a team of researchersdeveloped rubrics for curriculum review that can be used by educators or school leaders todetermine whether a curriculum includes a culturally responsive and racial equity focus andwhether the literacy materials, in particular the storybooks, exemplify this focus (Curenton et al.,2023). Further emphasizing the importance of diverse resources, First Book conducted a pilotstudy to assess educators’ perspectives on diverse books and the impact on student outcomes.First, they surveyed almost 4000 educators from every state working in Title 1 or Title 1 eligibleschools, 18% of whom were preschool teachers (First Book Research & Insights, 2023). Theythen conducted in-depth interviews with a small sample. Students were ethnically and raciallydiverse including l6.2% Black, 31.7% Latine, and 21.8% White, Teachers agreed that diversebooks are important, but a small percentage are available. The study found that increasing accessto diverse books resulted in students’ spending more time reading and a majority chose “mirror”books with characters like themselves. A promising finding was a positive impact on studentreading outcomes with reading gains highest among 4- to 6-year-old students. As a pilot, thestudy has numerous limitations but will be replicated with a larger sample and control group. Research shows that children’s literature has not achieved the goal of promoting equityand inclusion (Adukia et al., 2021). Annually, the Cooperative Children’s Book Center in theSchool of Education at the University of Wisconsin, Madison documents the books it receives byand about Black, Indigenous, and People of Color. Although such books have increased, they arestill a small percentage of the overall number of books published (ccbc.education.wisc.edu). In2022, of the total 3,45l books analyzed, the Center reported the following percentages of booksthat have at least one Black, Indigenous, or Person of Color as a primary character or subject :12% Black/African, 9% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander , 6% Latine; 7% BIPOC Unspecified (e.g.brown-skinned character); 0.6% Arab, and 1% Indigenous (Cooperative Children’s Book Center,2023). The 6% share of books about Latine characters is far from equitable given that more than26% of young children in the United States are Latine (Fernando, 2021). Supporting Active and Interactive Learners Educators’ (often unconscious and implicit) racism may negatively impact youngchildren’s agency in educational contexts, at least according to teachers’ ratings (Adair, underreview; Adair et al., 2017, 2018). Opportunities to experience agency are important to children’sability to learn and show their capabilities (Adair, 2014), and are a key aspect of an activelearner. Children are active learners who initiate explorations of and interactions with thesurrounding world and both adults and peers (Brosterman, 1997; Cobb, 2000; DeVries, 2002;Fröbel, 1885; Gelman, 1994; National Research Council, 2001b; Piaget, 1973; Samuelsson et al.,2006). Thus, it is important that developers of high-quality curricula avoid a preponderance ofpassive “reception” of knowledge, recognizing that children construct knowledge andunderstanding from a wide variety of experiences (Clements, 1997). Further, curricula cansupport teachers in ensuring that classroom experiences promote learning and development and Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-11minimize time wasted in passive experiences, such as waiting during transitions betweenactivities (Early et al., 2010; La Paro et al., 2009). High-quality curricula can also help teachers achieve other critical characteristics of earlyeducation, such as stimulating and supportive interactions between teachers and children(Yoshikawa et al., 2013) and particularly, among teachers and children and content (Clements &Wright, 2022). Communication and supportive interaction are key factors in children’s learningand development (Burchinal et al., 2022) and children have the right to communicate and interact(Samuelsson et al., 2006). Developers can ensure multiple opportunities for children to talk with,not just listen to, teachers and interact with peers by applying research on productive dialoguesand “think-pair-share” strategies, to incorporate the best of such interactions between teachersand children and between children (e.g., Fraivillig et al., 1999; Palincsar, 1986). They cansupport teachers in using an equity lens, such as ensuring they are aware of their own implicitbias based on children’s socio-demographic and providing varied opportunities for children,especially those from marginalized groups, to express their ideas (Delpit, 1988; Iruka et al.,2023). High-quality curricula support teachers to better understand children by observing,interacting, and being reflective (Burchinal et al., 2022; Samuelsson et al., 2006). Curricula thatare simply activities without guidance for teachers to support the thinking and learning for whichthose activities are designed will be inadequate. Addressing Goals High-quality curricula (whether comprehensive or combinations) are intentional andpurposeful in addressing goals in all developmental and content domains, including multiple,developmentally-sequenced experiences to both support new learning and reinforce and expandpreviously acquired competencies (Diamond et al., 2013). We return to content domains in asucceeding section. Here, we emphasize that content areas and developmental domains includingsocial, emotional, and physical are addressed systematically and sequentially (Burchinal et al.,2022; Clements, 2007). Most important, high-quality curricula promote joyful, engaged learningfor all children (NAEYC, 2022). Involving Families High-quality curricula promote reciprocal partnerships with families and familyengagement (Beleslin et al., 2022; Samuelsson et al., 2006). To provide culturally andlinguistically relevant curricula and ensure equity, developers and teachers need to engage withand learn from families and communities (González, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Reyes, Da SilvaIddings, & Feller, 2016). A new vision of curriculum development includes a collaborationbetween developers and evaluations with communities and racially, culturally, and linguisticallydiverse families within them. Educators need to incorporate and build on families’ funds ofknowledge—the experiences, traditions, resources, and rich cultures they bring with them.Curricula build in communication supports to promote ongoing two-way partnerships to bringthe home into the school and vice versa (Sanders et al., 2007). Parents’ knowledge of children’sdevelopment predicts positive outcomes for their children, so two-way communication andsharing is critical (e.g., Douglas, 2024). Every chapter of this report discusses families and their Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-12involvement. This brief section is simply a reminder of their role in the development, selection,and implementation of preschool curriculum. Supporting Excellence and Fidelity in Teaching the Curriculum Teaching a curriculum well requires implementing it with fidelity. Although an aspect offidelity is compliance or adherence to a curriculum’s instructional activities, it may be as or moreimportant to be true to the vision of the young children experiencing the curriculum and whathappens in each classroom (Clements et al., 2011). Therefore, high-quality curricula aredeveloped to be supportive; adaptable; and especially, educative for teachers—the latter a criticalissue to which the chapter returns. In a similar vein, instruments that measure fidelity, whethercurriculum-specific or more general, must assess more than just adherence or dosage, but thequality of the environment and teaching, including those characteristics empirically connected tochildren’s learning and development (e.g., Clements et al., 2011; Sarama & Clements, 2021b).(See Chapters 2 and 9). Similarly, the measures must use models that consider the way quality isdefined in light of research that notes that definitions of quality often fail to address issues ofequity and the lived experiences of children from marginalized communities (Garcia-Coll, 1996;Iruka et al., 2022; Marks & Garcia-Coll, 2018; Phillips, Johnson, & Iruka, 2022). All of these considerations lead to a final and critical characteristic: a high-qualitycurriculum provides strong guidance and support for teaching effectively and sensitively whilebeing flexible and adaptable. Brown and Campione (1996) contrast two ways to flexibly adapt acurriculum. The first, a lethal mutation, no longer captures the pedagogical essence of theintervention and can be harmful. For example, “simplifying” a game by removing a step inwhich children turn to their partner and ask, “I am right?” limits peer interaction and removes anopportunity for productive disagreement (Clements & Sarama, 2021). In contrast, the secondway, a productive adaptation, positively reinterprets a curriculum, preserving its essence whiletailoring the learning experience to the strengths, needs, and characteristics of particularclassrooms and children (Brown & Campione, 1996). An example is giving some children anumber cube with only 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3 on the six faces and other children a cube with numbersfrom 5 to 10, depending on the children’s level of thinking (Clements & Sarama, 2021). Ideally,such formative assessment is built into a curriculum; regardless, any adaptation that serves theneeds of children, within the written curriculum or not, is a sign of fidelity to high-qualityteaching practice. Two types of adaptations should be included in a curriculum, with specific,easy-to-implement suggestions. Micro-adaptations are those the occur during a lesson tomaximize engagement and learning. In the previous example, changing the number cube couldbe done during a lesson to meet each child’s needs. Macro-adaptations involve reflecting onteaching and learning episodes so as to adjust future instruction. A teacher might plan acompletely new activity for the following lesson for a child who excels in the activity (detailedexamples can be found in the studied curricular reviewed here or at LearningTrajectories.org).Such adaptations can be of many types, such as modifying activities to be culturally responsiveor responsive to the need of a child with disabilities. High-quality curricula provide research-based guidance that benefits everyone. Incontrast to the notion that individual teachers create all aspects of the curriculum, systematic, Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-13evidence-based practice is more effective than private, idiosyncratic practice (Raudenbush,2009). This does not imply use of a narrowly “scripted” curriculum; rather, focusing on theshared scientific base is a more effective and efficient way to improve education. Further, suchscientifically grounded shared practice is, somewhat paradoxically, more likely to generatecreative contributions. Teachers may modify shared practices, and those modifications will beaccessible to discussion and further research. And, more extensively, productive adaptations andflexible curriculum planning are necessary for teachers and children in different socioculturalcontexts and with different individual strengths, assets, interests, and needs (Bredekamp &Joseph, 2024). From this perspective, fidelity is being true to the research guidance and thevision of the curriculum as supporting all children’s development, not compliance with a rigidscript. Curriculum developers need to incorporate both of these critical aspects. Summary: Characteristics of High-Quality, Equity-Driven Preschool Curriculum This chapter describes the components and criteria of high-quality preschool curriculathat support equity and promote positive learning and developmental outcomes. Table 4-1summarizes characteristics proposed by the committee that can be incorporated into thedevelopment of high-quality, equitable curricula.TABLE 4-1 Characteristics of High-Quality, Equity-Driven Preschool Curriculum Curriculum Characteristic Key Considerations for Decision Makers Research-based Is it based on current research on content and teaching practices that support children’s development and learning? Are essential principles of how children develop and learn reflected in the curriculum’s philosophy and planned experiences? Evidenced-based for child Has the curriculum been rigorously validated? Does research outcomes show positive learning outcomes from its use with children of racially, ethnically, linguistically, culturally, and socioeconomically diverse backgrounds? Scope and sequence Does the curriculum provide an organized framework and sequence to guide teachers’ decision making and children’s development and learning? Focus is across Does the curriculum address “the whole child”—all domains of developmental domains and development (cognitive, social, emotional, and physical—and content areas or coherently content areas such as literacy, mathematics, science, social incorporates domain-specific studies, health and physical education, and the arts? OR curriculum Are domain-specific curricula, such as focused literacy and mathematics, coherently organized to guide educators’ implementation? Covers content and learning Is there an organized scope and sequence in each of the domains in depth learning domains that describes progressive steps and individual learning experiences? Does the curriculum build on children’s prior learning and experiences? Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-14Clearly defines specific Does the curriculum address important goals such as thedevelopmentally appropriate standards of the disciplines (e.g., mathematics, literacy,learning goals science) and/or the state or federal early learning standards? Are the goals reasonable expectations for most 3- to 5-year-old children?Includes well-designed Does the curriculum provide opportunities for children to belearning experiences and active and engaged both mentally and physically?interactionsEmphasizes responsive, Do learning experiences include both child-focused explorationintentional teaching and investigation and teacher-guided instruction? Is the curriculum responsive to children’s strengths and interests? Does it promote positive interactions among teachers and children?Provides guidance to prepare Does the curriculum provide flexible guidance on daily,developmentally weekly, and/or monthly schedules? Is there guidance on neededappropriate, engaging age-appropriate and culturally and linguistically relevantlearning environments, books, equipment, and materials for children and teachers thatmaterials, and schedules are flexible to support children’ interests and progress over time? Is there guidance on organization of the environment, including use of diverse learning contexts designed to meet important, meaningful goals—such as centers, small and large groups, and individual experiences?Supports culturally relevant, Does the curriculum promote a strengths-based approach,responsive, and sustaining recognizing that all development and learning is a product ofteaching and learning cultural experiences? Does the curriculum positively promote children’s cultural and racial identities and home languages, and recognize and build on their prior knowledge and competence acquired in their families and communities?Supports multilingual Does the curriculum provide instructional support for teacherslearners and various to scaffold children’s English language development while alsolanguage system supporting multilingual learners’ home languages or their language system (e.g., African American English)? Is emergent bilingualism for MLs a goal? Are there linguistically affirming and culturally responsive materials and activities in childrens’ home languages and language system that support multilingual/multidialectal learners’ development?Provides individuation and Does the curriculum provide for adaptations, accommodations,effective supports for modifications, and effective supports for children withchildren with identified identified disabilities or developmental delays?disabilitiesSupports individualized Does the curriculum offer guidance for teachers to adaptinstruction for every child recommended teaching strategies and learning experiences according to individual children’s strengths, interests, abilities, needs, and continuing learning progress? Is the guidance detailed and easy to use, including both key components of Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-15 high-quality formative assessment, assessing to understand children’s level of thinking, strategies, etc., and modifying tasks and teaching strategies based on this understanding? Supports family engagement Does the curriculum promote reciprocal partnerships with families? Are materials and strategies provided for families in their preferred languages so they can engage in school experiences and decisions and extend children’s learning at home? Includes ongoing assessment Is there support for teachers to collect, analyze, and use tools and strategies aligned information from both formative and summative assessments to with goals and experiences adapt and individualize instruction and to help children make continued progress? Provides professional Are there initial and ongoing professional learning development opportunities to ensure that teachers implement the curriculum with fidelity (often a balance of compliance fidelity with fidelity of vision)?SOURCE: Adapted from the Preschool Curriculum Consumer Report Criteria (Head Start Early Childhood Learningand Knowledge Center (ECLKC), 2020). In summary, high-quality curricula are coherent, equitable, culturally relevant,linguistically supportive and affirming, flexible, and adaptable (Clements & Sarama, 2002a;National Academies of Sciences, 2022; Sanders et al., 2007). Full development of high-qualitycurricula includes establishing evidence that supports their effectiveness (National Academies ofSciences, 2022), meaning that the curriculum is both research based and empirically validated(Clements, 2007). Meeting these criteria places substantial demands on curriculum developers,who work in interdisciplinary areas (Clements, 2007), often as part of diverse interdisciplinaryteams that include experts in serving children from historically marginalized groups and ofdiverse races, ethnicities, languages, abilities/disabilities, and socioeconomic backgrounds. WHO DEVELOPS VARIOUS CURRICULUM TYPES AND APPROACHES Curriculum development requires broad and deep knowledge, experience, and expertise.Therefore, it is important to ask who develops curricula for preschool and who ideally would.Preschool teachers cannot be expected to create curriculum resources independently (Ball &Cohen, 1996; National Academies of Sciences, 2020, 2022); in addition to expertise, the taskrequires substantial time, expertise, and teamwork. Some educators champion the individualteacher’s interpretation and even creation of curriculum. As noted earlier, however, researchsuggests that implementation of systematic, evidence-based practice is more pedagogicallypowerful and more equitable than individual teachers’ private practice (Raudenbush, 2009). Nevertheless, although it varies by curriculum type and approach, teachers always arecocreators of curriculum when it is defined as implemented curriculum (Burkhardt et al., 1989).Although their role is limited in certain types of highly structured, direct instruction-basedapproaches, high-quality implementation always considers children’s culture and language,strengths and assets, interests, personalities, individual abilities, and knowledge (Castagno & Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-16Brayboy, 2008; Sanders et al., 2007). Another example is the implementation of learningtrajectories, an asset-based approach that integrates goals, child-centered developmentalprogressions, and teaching practices (described fully in later sections). The learning trajectoriesin that approach are “hypothetical learning trajectories,” as they are realized educationally onlywhen instantiated by teachers and the children in their classrooms, with modifications beinginherent in the approach. The learning trajectories approach is asset based because it alwaysstarts with and builds on the strengths of each child—what they know and can do. In this way, ahigh-quality curriculum supports teachers’ agency to imbue curriculum implementation withsovereignty, self-determination, and cultural relevance (cf. Castagno & Brayboy, 2008).Although research in this area is limited, one study showed the success of involving teachers inthe development of a problem-based STEM curriculum for preschool children (John et al., 2018).The teachers perceived increased knowledge and self-efficacy in teaching STEM in theirclassrooms, supporting use of a participatory curriculum design approach to empower teachersand enhance their self-efficacy in teaching STEM to young children. Several other approaches to planning and implementing curriculum are frequently used inpreschool programs. For example, early childhood education has a long tradition of emergentcurriculum in which educational experiences are derived from the interests and experiences ofthe learners as the school year proceeds (Jones & Nimmo, 1994). “Although emergentcurriculum places considerable emphasis on following children’s interests, this approach doesnot mean that nothing is planned and that everything emerges solely from the children”(Bredekamp & Joseph, 2024, p.367). Instead, emergent curriculum can be described as aplanning process in which teachers and children create webs of possibilities that becometentative plans (Jones & Nimmo, 1994). Depending on children’s initiatives and responses, theteacher observes, assesses, and adapts plans and experiences to meet learning goals. Such achild-centered approach supports flexibility and creativity. At the same time, however,implementers of emergent curricula benefit from knowledge such as that embodied in learningtrajectories and developmental progressions. Rather than dichotomize curriculum as eithercompletely teacher-planned and emerging from children’s interests or commercially published,consider a more complex range of curriculum options. Table 4-2 describes a continuum of typesof curricula available while at the same time thinking about the teacher’s role in relation to thoseplans (Bredekamp & Joseph, 2024). In some cases, then, curriculum is developed very close to the classroom. Depending onthe quality of the curriculum, it can potentially be highly open-ended, flexible, and responsive tothe individual children in the classroom, their cultural and linguistic contexts (Sanders et al.,2007), and the class as a whole. The curriculum can also build on and respond to individualchildren’s strengths, interests, motivation, understanding, and abilities. Increasingly, however,curriculum is developed at a distance from the classroom and is much more prescribed. Teacherspace instruction to ensure that the scope and sequence of the curriculum are covered so thatchildren are exposed to and learn concepts and continue to make progress on important learninggoals and expectations. In reality, curriculum development lies somewhere between these two alternatives, andrather than dichotomizing curriculum as either completely teacher planned and emerging fromchildren’s interests or commercially published, one can consider a more complex range of Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-17curriculum options. Table 4-2 describes the teacher’s role in implementing a continuum ofcurriculum types (Bredekamp & Joseph, 2024). Even this cursory description reveals therelationship between curriculum and teaching. At one extreme, teachers using an emergentcurriculum have tremendous responsibilities and are expected to create almost everything in thecurriculum while at the same time ensuring that children achieve important learning outcomes.At the other extreme, teachers’ expertise may be underestimated, and adaptation for individualdifferences may be limited if administrators do not permit deviation from a prescribed script.TABLE 4-2 Preschool Curriculum Types and the Teacher’s Role in ImplementationEmergent Curriculum Curriculum Researcher- Published Published(based on children’s Model with Developed Curriculum with Highlyinterests, hypotheses, Linked and Validated Resources and Scriptedand investigations) Assessment Curriculum Materials; Curriculum Tools and with Teachers’ Proprietary or with Materials; Professional Guide and Open Source (by May Be Development Professional Agency, School Researcher Development District, or Developed System of Child Care Programs)Identifydevelopmental andlearning goals.Prepare the Provideenvironment, and materials,obtain materials and environment,resources. and learning experiences within the curriculum.Plan interest-based Use Implement Reference Implementcurriculum and intentional and curriculum teacher’s guide curriculumlearning experiences child- guided closely to to identify closely to(such as guided play and teacher- ensure fidelity scope and ensure fidelityand projects) with guided to program. sequence, to program.children. strategies. implement This may be learning compliance experiences, fidelity (e.g., and use with direct recommended instruction strategies. approaches) or fidelity to a vision, Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-18 depending on the curriculum goals.Know learning Make decisions Remaintrajectories of skills about how to sensitive toand knowledge in each use or adapt children’scurriculum area. suggested responses and learning plans. plan for needs.Observe and assess Use program’s Observe and Observe and Use program’schildren’s strengths, assessment assess assess assessmentinterests, and progress. tools to assess children’s children’s tools to track children’s strengths, interests and children’s strengths, interests, and progress. progress. interests, and progress. progress.Adapt teaching to help Adapt Adapt Adapt teaching, Adapt teachingindividual children, teaching to teaching to including as much asincluding children help help lessons, scripts, possible towith disabilities, make individual individual and prompts, to engageprogress. children, children, help individual individual including including children make children, children with children with progress. including disabilities, disabilities, children with make make disabilities, progress. progress. build on their strengths, and help them make progress.SOURCE: Adapted from Bredekamp & Joseph, 2024, Table 10.1, p. 359. CURRICULUM FOR SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL LEARNING Social-emotional learning (SEL) involves the development of knowledge and skills inemotion recognition and regulation, positive self-image, compassion, positive relationships withadults and other children, and effective social problem-solving and decision-making. Suchlearning begins in infancy and continues throughout the early childhood years (Institute ofMedicine (IOM) and National Research Council (NRC), 2015). Positive social-emotionallearning and development can be promoted in preschool programs in which teachers providelearning opportunities that are engaging and educative. However, children living in poverty aremore likely to experience lower-quality early education, even with the availability and funding ofprograms such as Head Start and public pre-kindergarten (NASEM, 2023). The intersection of Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-19other marginalizing factors can produce further negative impacts on a child’s early educationalexperiences and development. The Foundational Importance of SEL Children who develop social-emotional competencies are more likely to have morepositive experiences and academic trajectories beyond their preschool years (e.g., Bierman et al.,2008; Burchinal et al., 2022; Flook, Goldberg, Pinger, & Davidson, 2015; Institute of Medicine(IOM) and National Research Council (NRC), 2015). Further, social and emotionalcompetencies support early learning. For example, they provide security and support that enablesand contributes to learning in all domains (e.g., Starnes, 2017). This can involve “apprenticeshipin thinking” that develops general and specific cognitive abilities through interactions ineveryday social contexts (Rogoff, 1990). In summary, SEL is and must be a major domain in preschool curriculum (Institute ofMedicine (IOM) and National Research Council (NRC), 2015). Positive social and emotionalexperiences are critical and increasingly important given recent challenges, from social-culturalchanges and stresses (Gunter, Caldarella, Korth, & Young, 2012) due to the pandemic. However,“Scholars and practitioners have raised important questions about whether guiding frameworks,prominent programs, and associated assessments adequately reflect, cultivate, and leveragecultural assets and promote the optimal well-being of young people, especially those fromcommunities of color and underresourced backgrounds” (Jagers et al., 2019, p. 162), bringingattention to the concept of transformative SEL, which is “ the potential of SEL to mitigate theeducational, social, and economic inequities that derive from the interrelated legacies ofracialized cultural oppression in the United States and globally (Jagers et al., 2019, p. 163).Thismeans that SEL must also attend to the structure of power by ensuring children, includingchildren with privilege, are aware of their identity and others and co-create a community ofa*gency and belonging. SEL Curricula and Interventions Preschool experiences impact children's social and emotional development (e.g.,Goldstein, Warde, & Peluso, 2013 Institute of Medicine (IOM) and National Research Council(NRC), 2015 #7341; Shure & Spivack, 1980) as well as their social preferences, such as beingmore egalitarian (List, Cappelen, Tungodden, & Samek, 2020). High-quality interventions andcurricula are mainly based on models of social and emotional learning and target malleablefactors identified through research (Domitrovich, Moore, & Greenberg, 2012; Institute ofMedicine (IOM), 2010). Such theory- and evidenced-based interventions with high-qualityimplementations from introduction to sustainability can have a positive effect on youngchildren's social-emotional learning (e.g., Bierman et al., 2008; Domitrovich et al., 2012; Myran,Richardson, & Stonelson, 2009), including children with disabilities (Vaughn et al., 2003),although overall evaluations of SEL programs have been mixed (Zhai, Raver, & Jones, 2015). Areview of research on early childhood SEL interventions concludes that the more effectiveprograms include professional development of educators, stress management for educatorsthemselves, and embedding strategies in everyday classroom activities (McClelland et al., 2017). Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-20This section reviews research on evidence-based focused SEL curricula and SEL interventionsthat have implications for developing and evaluating preschool curricula. The I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) curriculum was designed to decrease disruptivebehaviors by teaching interpersonal cognitive problem-solving skills. ICPS includes lessons inrecognizing children’s own and others’ emotions, perspective-taking, and practice in thinking ofmultiple solutions to social problems before they arise (Shure & Spivack, 1982). A randomizedcontrol trial involving 4-year-old African American children in a low-income community foundimprovements in children’s social problem solving skills especially the ability to think ofalternative solutions to interpersonal problems and decreases in physical and verbal aggression,inability to cope with frustrations, and social withdrawal (Shure & Spivack, 1982). Feis &Simons (1985) replicated the study in an RCT with rural preschoolers, The study found decreasesin problem behaviors and fewer referrals to a mental health consultant in children experiencingICPS compared to children in the control group. More research has been conducted on Preschool Promoting Alternative ThinkingStrategies (PATHS), a universal elementary school prevention curriculum aimed at reducingaggression and behavior problems by promoting the development of social-emotionalcompetence. Emotional competencies, considered to develop first, are taught initially, and thencognition and behavior. As an example, verbal mediation and inhibitory control are taught withlessons using a traffic signal, with the red light signaling “Stop—Calm Down,” yellow signalingchildren to "Slow Down— Think," and green signaling “Go—Try My Plan.” Identifying andverbally labeling feelings and emotions to manage them is taught with Feeling Face cards.Multiple studies have been conducted on PATHS, such as one reporting support for itseffectiveness in promoting inhibitory control and verbal fluency and partial mediation ofbehavioral outcomes of inhibitory control (Riggs, Greenberg, Kusché, & Pentz, 2006). Theauthors argue that developers of social-emotional prevention programs should consider thedevelopmental integration of executive functioning, verbal processing, and emotional awareness.The conservative review process of the What Works Clearinghouse, on the other hand, concludedthat PATHS had no discernable effects (effect size = 0) on academic achievement, socialinteractions, observed individual behavior, or emotional status for students in elementary school(https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/InterventionReport/712). However, the large Head Start CARESproject reported that PATHS showed small to moderate improvements in children’s knowledgeand understanding of emotion (emotion knowledge), social problem-solving skills, and socialbehaviors (Morris et al., 2014). Further, positive effects were found in a more extensive intervention project usingPATHS as one component. The Head Start REDI (Research-based, Developmentally Informed)was not a curriculum, but an enrichment intervention designed to promote social-emotionalcompetence (PATHS), language, and literacy development. These components were designed tobe integrated and implemented with the Creative Curriculum and High-Scope which Head Startprograms were already using (Nix et al., 2013). REDI included brief lessons, extensionactivities, and teaching strategies, all supported by professional development and mentoring(Bierman et al., 2008). In that study, significant differences favored children in REDI classroomson vocabulary, emergent literacy, emotional understanding, social problem-solving, socialbehavior, and engagement. In another study, REDI substantially decreased teacher-reported and Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-21independent observations of children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, withthe most potent effects for Latine girls (Raver et al., 2009). Another study testing REDI’s logic model found that preschool gains in the social-emotional and language/emergent literacy skills mediated three important kindergartenoutcomes: reading, learning engagement, and positive social behavior. Importantly, this was afteraccounting for preschool gains in vocabulary and emergent literacy skills (Nix, Bierman,Domitrovich, & Gill, 2013). Also noteworthy, the social-emotional benefits of REDI were themost sustainable of the domain effects (Sanford DeRousie & Bierman, 2012; see also Welsh,Bierman, Nix, & Heinrichs, 2020). Al’s Pals Kids Making Healthy Choices is a social-emotional curriculum designed topromote positive relationships, self-control, problem-solving, and healthy decision-making, andreduce problem behaviors such as aggression and social withdrawal (Lynch, 1998). Thecurriculum includes guided play, puppets, songs, and teacher-led lessons. A randomized controltrial in a large Head Start program found significant positive effects on children’s socialemotional competence and coping skills and less aggression in the intervention group comparedto the control group (Lynch, Geller, & Schmidt, 2004). In some SEL interventions, mindfulness and/or yoga is embedded (McClelland et al.,2017). For example, in a randomized control trial of the Kindness Curriculum children whoparticipated significantly improved on cognitive regulation and prosocial behavior compared tothe control group (Flook et al., 2015). As in many such studies, larger gains were found forchildren initially lower in social competence. Next, we present an elaborate review of a particularly influential model implemented inpreschool programs across the U.S. to improve social-emotional development and reducechallenging behavior in preschool settings—the Pyramid Model for Promoting Social andEmotional Competence in Infants and Young Children (Fox, Carta, Strain, Dunlap, & Hemmeter,2010; Hemmeter, Ostrosky, & Fox, 2006; Hemmeter, Fox, & Snyder, 2013). Recent data fromthe U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights reported that more than 8,000 childrenwere suspended from public preschool programs in 2011–2012, with Black children representingmost of those suspensions (U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights Data, 2014).2017–2018 data from the Office of Civil Rights also found that preschoolers served under IDEAwere expelled at rates 2.5 times greater than their share of the total preschool population (U.S.Department of Education, 2023). A recent policy statement offers guidance about decreasinginappropriate discipline practices and promoting the use of promotion and prevention practices tofoster social-emotional competence (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & U.S.Department of Education, 2014). The statement encourages programs to consider implementingthe Pyramid Model (Fox, Dunlap, Joseph, & Strain, 2003; Hemmeter, Ostrosky, & Fox, 2006). The Pyramid model is a multi-tiered framework to identify and implement evidence-based practices in early education programs and classrooms to promote social skills andemotional competencies in all children, including children with developmental disabilities. Aclassroom-wide positive behavior support approach for developing young children's social-emotional competence and preventing and addressing their challenging behavior, the PyramidModel was designed to be an efficient classroom-wide approach for supporting all youngchildren’s social-emotional development and preventing their challenging behavior. In the Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-22Pyramid Model, social-emotional teaching practices are implemented within and acrossclassroom activities and routines versus only during small-group instruction. The Pyramid includes four components: building positive relationships with children,families, and colleagues; designing supportive and engaging environments; intentional teachingof social and emotional skills; and developing individualized interventions for children with themost challenging behavior. A key component is embedded instructional strategies such asemotional literacy (acquiring vocabulary to communicate feelings, friendship skills, behaviorregulation (calming strategies), and problem-solving. The model is designed to be implementedby classroom educators with support from behavior or mental health consultants and is based ontwo primary assumptions. The first assumption is that there is a relationship between children'ssocial-emotional development, communication skills, and problem behavior. The secondassumption is that to address the needs of all children in early childhood settings, professionalsneed a range of strategies to address the myriad of factors that might cause challengingbehaviors. Research from a randomized study on implementing the Pyramid Model within publicpreschool classrooms indicated that teachers who implemented the model rated children ashaving fewer challenging behaviors and improved social skills (Hemmeter et al., 2016).Outcomes for children were not statistically significant, but effect sizes were of moderate size(Hemmeter, 2016), the study met the rigorous WWC standards without reservations. 8 A laterevaluation extended the Pyramid Model with components based on current research related toimplicit bias, culturally responsive practices, and what is known about the use of inappropriatediscipline practices in early childhood programs (Fox, Strain, & Dunlap, 2021). Although not anexperimental evaluation of the approach's effect on inappropriate discipline practices, it didillustrate how early education programs can address diverse populations' social, emotional, andbehavioral needs without using suspension and expulsion (Fox et al., 2021). The Pyramid Model aims to support all children's social-emotional development andreduce the intensity or likelihood of significant and persistent problem behavior. The PyramidModel mirrors elements in the tiered PBIS (Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports)framework used in K-12 schools (McIntosh & Goodman, 2016). Both frameworks reflect athree-tiered model of classroom strategies for promoting the social-emotional development of allchildren and addressing the needs of children at risk for or who have challenging behavior (Fox,Dunlap, Hemmeter, Joseph, & Strain, 2003). Tier 1 represents universal practices implemented tosupport all children's social-emotional learning and behavior. Tier 2 practices are implementedwith children identified as at risk for persistent, challenging behavior. Tier 3 providesindividualized planning and support for children with the most persistent challenging behavior(Dunlap et al., 2014; Lewis, Adamson, Mitchell, & Lembke, 2013). Children with disabilitiesoften require explicit social skills instruction. Under this model, teachers are offered a significantlevel of support to offer targeted and effective social-emotional skill-building lessons andinterventions that decrease challenging behavior and improve a child's ability to learn. This isparticularly important in inclusive settings since children with disabilities are 2.5 times morelikely than typically developing peers to be expelled from preschool based on behavioral issues(U.S. Department of Education, 2023). The Pyramid Model has also led the field in scaling and 8 See https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC/Study/85768. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-23disseminating the model, and it is currently implemented at some level in nearly every state inthe U.S. and has also been broadly adopted by Head Start. Evaluations of the Tools of the Mind curriculum, designed to promote self-regulation,have been mixed, with some studies showing positive effects (e.g., Barnett et al., 2008; Baron,Evangelou, Malmberg, Melendez-Torres, & International, 2017) followed most often by nulleffects at the preschool level (Baron et al., 2017; Nesbitt & Farran, 2021), as reviewed in anupcoming section. The large CARES research reported that Tools did not demonstrate expectedimpacts on executive function or self-regulation, producing positive impacts only on emotionalknowledge (Morris et al., 2014). Another SEL curriculum, Strong Start Pre-K, including “booster lessons,” significantlydecreased internalizing behaviors and improved child–teacher relationships (Gunter et al., 2012).Part of an evidence-based SEL series designed to be developmentally appropriate and reducestudents’ internalizing problem behaviors, the Pre-K program is highly structured and partlyscripted to teach a vocabulary of feelings and social and emotional competencies that preventmental health problems. Literature, puppets, and familiar situations are included in brief,repeated lessons. Other studies in kindergarten and grades 1 and 2 similarly yielded positiveeffects (Kramer, Caldarella, Christensen, & Shatzer, 2010; Whitcomb & Merrell, 2012). The Incredible Years includes a preschool classroom curriculum entitled Dina Dinosaurand training programs for both parents and educators. The Dinosaur program includes wholegroup lessons, small group activities, materials such as puppets and a Calm Down thermometer,and skills development embedded throughout the day (The Incredible Years, 2024). Its trainingprograms for different contexts are designed to prevent and reduce behavior problems andimprove emotional self-regulation and social competence. Ideally, contexts are combined—parent, teachers, and child—infancy through elementary. Videos and vignettes portray adultsfrom different backgrounds modeling social and emotional coaching, positive discipline, andchildren engaged in social problem-solving. Studies on different programs and outcomes areavailable (Webster-Stratton & Bywater, 2019). A randomized control trial with a sample ofchildren in Head Start found that the children in the program that used Incredible Yearsdemonstrated fewer conduct problems than children in the Head Start program that did not usethe curriculum (Webster-Stratton, Reid, & Hammond, 2001). Another RCT found that comparedto the control group, children experiencing Incredible Years showed greater gains in emotionregulation and social competence and greater decreases in conduct problems (Webster-Stratton,Reid & Stoolmiller, 2008). A recent study reported positive effects on preschoolers' socialcompetencies with decreased behavior problems (Major, Gaspar, Palos, & Pereira, 2024).Caveats include the quasi-experimental structure and the use of any teacher reports (which maybe more subjective, a caveat for many studies in this sphere). (Positive effects were also found instudies in which the curriculum was combined with, and thus confounded by, other curriculumand extra-curricular components, e.g., Zhai, Raver, & Jones, 2012). The large CARES researchproject reported that Incredible Years improved children's emotional knowledge, social problem-solving skills, and social behaviors but failed to produce expected impacts on children’s problembehavior and executive function, an exception was some benefit for children with the highestlevels of behavior problems at the beginning of the year (Morris et al., 2014). Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-24 Finally, consistent with the results of these studies, a meta-analysis that included many ofthese curricula and approaches indicated that early social-behavioral intervention emphasizingintentional teaching of social skills has a substantial benefit for children with emotional andbehavioral problems (Dong et al,, 2023). Curriculum and intervention fidelity were significantmoderators of these effects, with important implications for SEL preschool curricula. The effectsof curriculum-based interventions were smaller than the interventions without curriculum. Thus,a written curriculum may not effectively ameliorate preschoolers' social behavioral problems, asare programs in other forms. Interventions integrated throughout the day were smaller than thosedelivered during scheduled times, suggesting the importance of intentional teaching of SEL forpreschoolers and, thus, professional development for teachers (Dong et al., 2023). The large-scale CARES study concluded that some evidence-based approaches canimprove preschoolers' social-emotional competence when implemented at scale with appropriatesupport. However, they also conclude that there were no facilitative effects on academiccompetencies, and, importantly, there were no impacts on outcomes in kindergarten as reportedby teachers and parents. Fadeout is a pervasive phenomenon, but little about social-emotionalskill persistence is known. A meta-analysis reported that at 1- to 2-year follow-ups, persistencerates were larger for cognitive skills than for social-emotional skills; they demonstrated similarpatterns of fadeout (Hart, Bailey, Luo, Sengupta, & Watts, 2023). In contrast to many studies thatshow that children with lower entry skills benefit the most from curricular interventions, follow-up quantile treatment effect analyses found that students who had greater emotional knowledgeand problem-solving skills gained more from the social-emotional curricula studied in CARES(Shea & Jenkins, 2021). Despite how much we have learned, more research on SEL curricula would benefit thefield. Studies of some SEL-oriented curricula, such as Second Step, designed to reduceimpulsive, high-risk, and aggressive behaviors, are often limited methodologically (e.g., WhatWorks Clearinghouse, 2013). However, pilot studies have been promising (Upshur, Wenz-Gross,& Reed, 2013). A follow-up efficacy evaluation also concluded that there were promising results,with marginal effects on the social-emotional domain and significant effects on measures ofexecutive function (Upshur, Heyman, & Wenz-Gross, 2017). However, Latine children appearedto have fewer gains in EF than White students. SEL: Implications for Preschool Curricula Existing research identifies social and emotional learning as critical to the preschooleducational experience. Further, theory- and evidenced-based interventions with high-qualityimplementations from introduction to sustainability can have a positive effect on youngchildren's social-emotional learning (e.g., Bierman et al., 2008; Domitrovich et al., 2012; Myranet al., 2009). Features of the curricula, approaches, and interventions in the research corpus offerhelpful guidelines for high-quality preschool education. However, a necessary caution is thatmany successful projects constituted specific interventions or broader approaches that go wellbeyond providing a curriculum, with many of them not encapsulated in a written curriculum atall. Further, at least one meta-analysis found that approaches or interventions that used a writtencurriculum had smaller effects than those that did not (this review focused on children with Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-25emotional and behavioral problems, Dong et al., 2023). Therefore, while the implications drawnfrom research are empirically supported, not all effective programs are (or are entirely)encapsulated into written curricular objects. Nevertheless, several guidelines are suggested bythe research. • A curriculum or approach that promotes incremental, sequential social-emotional learning should be used, or a theme-based curriculum should be supplemented with a curriculum or approach that provides such learning experiences (Burchinal et al., 2022)—for example, beginning with identifying and labeling feelings such as happy, sad, mad, and scared and progressing to others, such as frustrated, jealous, or disappointed (Burchinal et al., 2022). • Children learn about how people feel and interact by observing, asking questions, and discussing peoples' feelings and interactions with trusted adults. They also learn from lessons in understanding others and their perspectives, taking turns cooperating, and dealing with conflict. They develop social and emotional understanding and competencies more when teachers intentionally use classroom experiences to discuss feelings, strategies for resolving conflicts, or collaborative decision-making (Burchinal et al., 2022; Institute of Medicine (IOM) and National Research Council (NRC), 2015). • Intentional teaching, including scheduled, sequenced lessons emphasizing small group work, develops preschoolers' social problem-solving (Burchinal et al., 2022), ability to identify and discuss feelings, use verbal mediation, teaching social and emotional skills, including individualized interventions for children with challenging behaviors (especially those that functional assessment of the relation between the challenging behaviors and the child's environment and that adapt the environment, Dunlap et al., 2006). Literature, videos, photographs, puppet shows, familiar situations, role-playing, and specific classroom incidents can help provide educational experiences. Supplements following these guidelines may also promote general cognitive skills. For example, a cost-effective intervention of scheduled, sequenced (across increasing difficulty) movement and music games developed Head Start children’s working memory, attentional flexibility, and inhibitory control, with MLLs also learning more (McClelland, Tominey, & Aco*ck, 2015). • New understandings and skills should be implemented in staged activities and within and across classroom activities and routines to provide repeated experiences and generalization. • Similarly, effective social and emotional development is fostered by wide-ranging efforts to build positive relationships between educators and children, families, and colleagues and design supportive and engaging environments (Blewitt et al., 2020) • Recognizing and incorporating children’s backgrounds, languages, and experiences fosters positive social and emotional experiences and makes learning more relevant and engaging (Burchinal et al., 2022). Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-26 • Building strong positive relationships with students, creating a safe/supportive learning environment, fostering teacher/family partnerships, building confidence, providing education resources, and holding students to high expectations were the strategies that nurture the academic and social development of young Black children in low-socioeconomic communities (Karaya, 2022). New approaches to address inequities and injustices have been proposed for curriculum, teaching, and research that need to be explored and investigated (e.g., Souto-Manning, 2023). • The success of the Pyramid Model is relevant to integrated Multi-Tiered Systems of Support(MTSS) Approaches that do not just focus on academics or social- emotional development but that focus on both simultaneously recognizing that social-emotional skills provide an essential foundation for learning (Wackerle- Hollman et al., 2019). In a new vision for curriculum, skills would be integrated, and teachers would not be able to focus on social-emotional development, language and literacy, or mathematics. Curricula would encompass the whole child and recognize the interconnectedness of learning and development. • As in all domains, professional development and support from administrators and behavior or mental health consultants, are important, if not requisite, supports for teachers in high-quality implementations of social and emotional curricula. SEL and the Content Domains Although results are mixed interventions addressing social and emotional developmentcan have a facilitative effect (and never a negative effect) on preschoolers' learning of contentdomains. On the other hand, some educators express concern that social and emotional learningmight be stifled when early education experiences focus on academic content. Although theseconcerns may be legitimate when methods for supporting content learning are inappropriate foryoung children, research is clear that, given appropriate pedagogy, young children can learnacross academic domains throughout early childhood with no adverse effects on otherdevelopmental domains (Le et al., 2019), and, if the teaching of those content domains alignswith research, with positive effects on the development of social-emotional and other generalcompetencies, such as executive function and self-regulation (e.g., Burchinal et al., 2022;Chernyak, Harris, & Cordes, 2022). Social interactions support children's math explorations andgreater math knowledge supported social interactions (e.g., Chernyak et al., 2022; Zippert,Eason, Marshall, & Ramani, 2019). CURRICULUM IN THE CONTENT DOMAINS High-quality curriculum is especially important for the subject-matter content domains.Teaching and learning subject matter requires curriculum materials that build toward a vision ofexcellence; are true to the subject, developmentally appropriate, and engaging; and are supportedby evidence of their success (Clements & Sarama, 2002a; NAEYC, 2022; National Academies ofSciences, 2022; Nyisztor & Marcus, 2008). Research indicates that effective use of curricula thatfocus on content such as language and literacy, mathematics, science, and social-emotional Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-27development, contributes substantially to children’s learning and development (Clements &Wright, 2022; Justice et al., 2015; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Curricula may play a particularlyimportant role given that general quality ratings (e.g., Quality Rating and Improvement System[QRIS]) have not proven predictive of, and may not assess what is needed to support, learning insubject-matter content domains (Finders et al., 2023). Further, approaches such as incidentalexperiences and teachable moments are valuable but inadequate if used exclusively (Ginsburg etal., 2008). Guidelines for the Content Domains Teaching content is necessary for “teaching the whole child.” Children have thecapability and natural motivation to investigate and learn subject-matter content. Developers ofhigh-quality curricula are aware of the need for attention to all content domains, even if they aredeveloping a domain-specific curriculum (Burchinal et al., 2022; Clements & Wright, 2022;National Academies of Sciences, 2022). Goals for all domains encompass concepts; procedures; information/facts; productivedisposition; practices, such as problem solving, problem posing, and investigation; and transferto other domains, including social-emotional development, executive function/self-regulation,learning to learn, and approaches to learning. These components along with domain-generalprocesses predict success in school and in life (e.g., Amukune & Józsa, 2023; Clements et al.,2016; Haywood, 2004; McClelland et al., 2019; Morgan et al., 2018; National Academies ofSciences, 2018b; Sung & Wickrama, 2018; Vitiello & Greenfield, 2017; Zelazo et al., 2004).Developers of effective, equitable curricula use research to build those components into learningexperiences, including formative assessment, and scaffolding within a context of a caringcommunity (Banse et al., 2021; Clements et al., 2016; Haywood, 2004; National Academies ofSciences, 2022). Advancing equity requires comprehensive support from the entire educationalcontext in which teachers work, including their communities, their social service agencies,professional development providers, and public policies (NAEYC, 2019). Effective teaching of content is based on an understanding of children’s thinking andlearning (see Chapter 3). As discussed previously, curriculum developers support instruction thatbegins with and proceeds from a deep and reflective understanding of the thinking and learningof groups and individuals, specific to the domain. Research within each domain providessuggestions that are often unique to that content. For STEM, for example, teachers usingcurricula that include scientific kits and materials are more likely to teach accurate content(National Academies of Sciences, 2022; Nowicki et al., 2013). As another example, teachers’modeling of math materials before an activity or a transition is more effective than followinggeneral class organization suggestions (Moffett et al., 2021). Inclusion of curricular supports for teachers to develop deep knowledge of thefundamentals of the content domains is essential to understanding what one is teaching. Withoutsuch knowledge of the goals and big ideas of the domain, it is difficult for teachers to recognizetheir nascent forms in children’s everyday activities, play, and other representations (Broderick &Hong, 2020; Edwards et al., 1993, 2012), and in turn, teachers may be unable to build onchildren’s prior knowledge and effectively implement an approach focused on asset-based Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-28learning trajectories. Given the limited pre-service and in-service experiences offered to manypreschool teachers, this requires considerable effort on curriculum developers; see the sectionCURRICULA FOR CHILDREN AND THEIR TEACHERS: EDUCATIVE CURRICULA. Teaching content to young children takes place mainly in playful contexts, ranging fromintentional small- and large-group and individual work, to everyday routines, to child-initiatedplay and teachable moments (Diamond et al., 2013). Content instruction includes both incidentaland intentional approaches. For curriculum developers, it is important to consider the goals, thechildren, and the range of teaching approaches to determine pedagogical practices (Burchinal etal., 2022). For example, naturalistic language scaffolding embedded in play and everydayroutines positively supports children’s receptive and expressive language development,especially for children with disabilities (e.g., Schreibman et al., 2015). Literacy and Language A substantial research base exists on teaching early literacy and language to informcurriculum development (International Literacy Association, 2018; National Institute forLiteracy, 2008; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). For example, the large-scale meta-analysis ofresearch on early literacy development conducted by the National Early Literacy Panel (NationalInstitute for Literacy, 2008) identified foundational knowledge and skills that are the forerunnersof conventional reading and writing. Among these predictors are alphabet knowledge,phonological awareness, concepts of print, early writing, and oral language. Continuing researchwith diverse populations of children on interventions to improve these and other early literacyand language outcomes such as comprehension and background knowledge has importantimplications for the development of high-quality preschool curriculum. Compared with earlier views of the science of reading that focused on formal instructionin reading in elementary school, recent work emphasizes complexities beyond the “simple viewof reading” and focused on the substantial development of foundational literacy skills in the earlyyears, especially in families and in preschool (Cabell et al., 2023; Zucker et al., 2022). Essentialfoundations such as language comprehension and production, print knowledge (Piasta et al.,2012), and content knowledge can develop early. This recent research also moves beyondstudying only typically developing, monolingual English-speaking children to include those whoare multilingual leaners, are racially diverse, live in diverse cultures, and have disabilities (Cabellet al., 2023). This research corpus provides detailed guidance for curriculum developers. For example,explicitly teaching letter sounds using mnemonics (e.g., embedding letters in familiar actions,objects, or characters) and embedding letters and their sounds within words in interesting andimaginative stories facilitates positive motivation and learning outcomes (Roberts & Sadler,2019). Some curricula teach primarily letter names or teach letter names before letter sounds(phonics), but research shows that teaching both simultaneously leads to greater learning (Piasta,2023; Piasta et al., 2010). Some curricula develop letters through whole-group instruction;however, differentiating teaching on the basis of formative assessment and teaching primarily insmall groups is more effective (Piasta, 2014, 2023). Such instruction also is more effective if Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-29targeted to each child’s letter and sound knowledge and if sequenced to teach easier letters (e.g.,letters in a child’s name; note that letter sounds are not so sequenced) such as A, B, and X, beforemore difficult letters such as Q, U, and V (Piasta, 2023; Piasta et al., 2022). Some curricula teach all upper-case letters before any lower-case letters. Children dorecognize upper-case letters more easily, but once they can name one, they can learn the lower-case version without waiting to learn the full upper-case alphabet (Piasta, 2023). In summary, research supports combining brief (approximately 10–15 minutes), fast-paced, explicit letter-name and letter-sound teaching that includes embedded mnemonics.Unfortunately, this approach is not used frequently. Research does not support other popularapproaches, such as teaching using multisensory techniques, letters within contexts, or combinedalphabet and phonological awareness (Piasta, 2023). By contrast, some preschool curricula use large-group lessons and move all childrenthrough the same activities (e.g., “letter of the week” approaches), minimizing individualization.As described previously, effective curricula embed consistent formative assessment to adaptinstruction to children’s current level of knowledge and skill. In a similar vein, specific language scaffolds during book reading activities promotechildren’s development of language and literacy, especially for populations who haveexperienced being marginalized (Pentimonti & Justice, 2010; Pentimonti et al., 2017; Pentimontiet al., 2010). For example, teachers might reduce the number of possible choices, as in, “What isthis part of the animal called? Is it the teeth or the jaw?” (Pentimonti & Justice, 2010, p. 247).Preschool teachers’ use of such scaffolds is infrequent, however, so curricula could build theminto lessons, emphasizing flexible use based on formative assessment (Pentimonti et al., 2017).For example, to teach the competence of predicting future events in a story, teachers mightpresent possible choices for children just developing the ability, such as, “Do you think Juan willdress up as an animal or super hero for the party?” For children who are further along indeveloping the ability, the teacher might challenge them to reason and hypothesize by asking,“Why do you think so?” or “Why is it helpful to predict what will happen?” Similarly, specific pedagogical practices in shared book reading improve a range oflanguage and literacy competencies in young children, including those with or at risk for learningdisabilities (Murphy et al., 2023). Preschoolers can also learn more than simply “names.” Forexample, experimental and quasi-experimental studies of World of Words curriculum, found thatboth word knowledge and conceptual development were taught successfully by engagingchildren with new vocabulary through taxonomic categories such as scientific or health conceptsand content [Neuman et al., 2011; Neuman & Kaefer, 2018). In one study, statistically significanteffects were found in the intervention group on children’s curriculum-related expressivevocabulary, content knowledge, and knowledge of information texts compared to the controlgroup (Neuman, Kaefer, & Pinkham, 2016). Although World of Words is a language curriculumdesigned to increase children’s vocabulary and world knowledge through content-rich units ofstudy, the curriculum is available only in English. Young children benefit from integrated and interdisciplinary approaches to teachingcontent. Arguably, integration is most important for language and literacy, as it gives meaning totheir use, develops disciplinary literacy, and content knowledge, all with effectiveness equal tothat of more siloed approaches (Wright & Gotwals, 2023; Purpura et al., 2021). However, Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-30developers consider the focus and interrelationship of curricula and curricular components withthe subject and the children in mind (National Academies of Sciences, 2022; see the section on“Integrated and Interdisciplinary Curricula” later in this chapter). In literacy, for example,explicit, structured activities targeting awareness of the written language and phonologicalfeatures of language help children develop early literacy competencies more than informalstorybook reading (Justice et al., 2015). To develop language skills, curricula encourage replacing simple “right or wrong”feedback with discussion of the ideas and strategies that underlie answers. In multiturnconversations, for example, teachers ask several children about their interpretation of a storybookor how they solved a problem and then ask others if they agree with the solution, always invitingmultiple children to respond (Justice et al., 2015). One of the most effective ways to build children’s language and literacy skills is aninteractive picture book reading technique called dialogic reading (Institute of EducationSciences, 2007). While reading books with children individually or in small groups, the teacheruses five types of increasingly complex prompts or questioning strategies that stimulate thechildren’s language interaction. Research on dialogic reading demonstrates that it enhances thelanguage skills of children from middle- and upper-income families more than does typicalpicture book reading (Institute of Education Sciences, 2007). Likewise, studies of dialogicreading with children experiencing poverty and children with disabilities found substantialpositive effects on language learning (Towson et al., 2016). Dialogic reading is a key component of Literacy Express, a comprehensive curriculumincluding units on oral language, literacy, basic math, science, general knowledge, and social-emotional development (Lonigan et al., 2005). Two large experimental studies that met WhatWorks Clearinghouse standards found positive effects on print knowledge and phonologicalawareness and promising effects on oral language (Institute for Education Sciences, 2007;Lonigan et al., 2011). Both interactive book reading and oral storytelling are proven strategies for promotingpreschool children’s language and early literacy development (Institute of Education Sciences,2007; Zucker et al., 2013; Johnson et al., 2019; Wright et al., 2022). Interactive book reading, inwhich teachers engage children in conversation about the story before, during, and after readingthe book, has enormous power to capitalize on the stories that books convey and images theydepict to positively represent and support children’s identities, cultural experiences, andbackgrounds and promote equity and inclusion (Armstrong, 2022; Bishop, 1990). It is important to note, however, that such a focus on the written word neglects the valueof oral storytelling traditions among diverse cultural groups. Oral storytelling is an especiallyrich aspect of Black Americans’ culture (Gardner-Neblett et al., 2017; Gardner-Neblett & Iruka,2015; Heath, 1983/1996, 1989). An analysis of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, whichused a large, nationally representative sample of children born in the United States in 2001,demonstrated for the first time that Black preschoolers’ oral storytelling abilities are positivelyrelated to their kindergarten early literacy skills (Gardner-Neblett & Iruka, 2015). The studyfound that children’s storytelling abilities in preschool predicted early literacy in kindergarten forBlack children from both low-income and higher-income families, but not for children fromother racial and ethnic groups. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-31 Oral storytelling is also an important part of the histories and present-day life of childrenof other races, ethnicities, and cultural groups, including Native Americans and Pacific Islanders(Tharp, 1982; Tharp et al., 2003; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). For example, “talk story” is anessential part of the enduring oral traditions of Hawai’i. During talk story, people share ideas,opinions, and daily events with others in groups in overlapping fashion. Talk story was one of thekey elements of the Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP), which produced positiveeffects on children’s reading comprehension. The KEEP program was thoroughly evaluated andhas been described as providing the strongest evidence for the efficacy of culturally basededucational practice (Demmert & Towner, 2003). Oral storytelling and its presence in children’sliterature supports the development of a healthy positive self-identity in Black children (Johnsonet al., 2019; Wright et al., 2017). Another research-validated curriculum component is storytelling and story acting(STSA). STSA is a structured practice that exemplifies child-centered, play-based, andconstructivist approaches that can operate as a curriculum module in conjunction with variouscurricula. During learning center or free play times, any child can choose to dictate a story to ateacher or assistant teacher, who records it. Later, the teacher reads each story to the class as theauthor, and other children they choose, act out the story. In an experiment, the addition of anSTSA component increased preschoolers’ narrative comprehension, print and word awareness,pretend abilities, and self-regulation and reduced play disruption (Nicolopoulou et al., 2015). Opening the World of Learning (OWL) is a language and early literacy focusedcurriculum which the publisher describes as comprehensive because it includes teaching theseskills in the context of content areas such as science, mathematics, social studies, and the arts(Savvis Learning Company, 2014). OWL is available in English and Spanish. As discussed inChapter 2, OWL was used successfully in the earliest iteration of the Boston publicprekindergarten program (Weiland, 2016; Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013). As part of EarlyReading First, the Enhanced Language and Literacy Success (ELLS) study evaluated OWL withadditional supports for emergent writing and dual language learners (Wilson, Dickinson, &Rowe, 2013). The ELLS study found positive effects on some language and literacy outcomesfor both English speakers and dual language learners. In the Georgia Summer Transition programusing the Spanish-English version of OWL, children had statistically significant higher Spanishand English vocabulary skills (Early et al., 2016; Maxwell, et al., 2013). Another preschool literacy curriculum, Doors to Discovery, uses eight thematic units tobuild oral language, phonological awareness, concepts of print, alphabet knowledge, writing, andcomprehension. Topics of study include nature, friendship, communities, and health. WhatWorks Clearinghouse identified three studies of Doors to Discovery that meet its evidencestandards (Institute of Education Sciences, 2013). WWC reports that potentially positive,substantively important effects were found for oral language and print knowledge (Christie et al.,2003; Institute of Education Sciences, 2013). Finally, research suggests that high-quality language and literacy in curricula may alsopromote children’s development of general cognitive competencies, such as self-regulation andexecutive function, possibly more so than curricular approaches targeting such competenciesdirectly (Blair & Raver, 2014; Marti et al., 2018; Mattera, Rojas, et al., 2021). We return to theseissues in the following section. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-32 These are only some of many examples that could be cited. As stated, there is a large baseof studies beyond the scope of this chapter, and multiple resources based on this research providesubstantial guidance and specific practices (e.g., Cabell et al.; Clements & Wright, 2022). Forexample, the Michigan Association of Intermediate School Administrators’ General EducationLeadership Network Early Literacy Task Force (2023) produced a strongly referenced research-based guide to essential practices for preschool. Among the 10 practices, for example, are“intentional use of literacy artifacts in dramatic play and throughout the learning environment”and “brief, clear, systematic, and explicit instruction in letter names, the sound(s) associated withthe letters, and how the letters are shaped and formed,” along with others on read-alouds withreference to print, vocabulary, and comprehension; writing; rich conversations; assessment;abundant materials; and collaboration with families (Michigan Association of IntermediateSchool Administrators General Education Leadership Network Early Literacy Task Force, 2023,p. 3 & p. 5). The entire recent literacy research corpus also emphasizes explicit support for teachingsubject-matter content as a critical foundation for the development of background knowledgethat is essential for reading comprehension. Mathematics As in language and literacy, there is a large research corpus on teaching earlymathematics (Baroody et al., 2019; Burchinal et al., 2022; Clements et al., 2023a; Clements &Sarama, 2021; Frye et al., 2013; National Research Council, 2009; Nunes et al., 2016; Sarama &Clements, 2009b), and high-quality curricula build on that base. For example, curricula thatsupport teachers in structuring lessons involving math that is challenging but achievable for eachchild promotes children’s learning in important and often neglected ways (Sullivan et al., 2015).Curriculum developers know and apply domain-specific research in designing and creatingcurricula. High-quality curricula help teachers understand developmental progressions in eachdomain and ways to assess and understand children’s level of thinking and learning in each(Clements & Wright, 2022; NASEM, 2022; NRC, 2009). Further, such curricula support multipleways of representing, expressing, and strategizing math, encouraging the mathematical thinkingof diverse cultures and individuals. Differences in goals can give the false impression that research on curriculum andteaching in early mathematics is contradictory when it is not, because different pedagogicalapproaches can be effective for different goals (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). For example, whenthe goal is only learning facts, procedures, and skills (instrumental understanding, or ruleswithout reasons [Skemp, 1976]), certain curriculum elements, such as whole-group organization,clear directions and explanations with modeling, fast pace, emphasis on mastery, and carefulreview, can be effective (Agodini et al., 2010; Carnine et al., 1997; Clark et al., 2012; Gersten,1985; Heasty et al., 2012). In contrast, goals focused on relational understanding (knowing bothwhat to do and why [Skemp, 1976]) include skills and also competencies such as conceptualknowledge, mathematical practices, general cognitive competencies (e.g., executive functions),and positive dispositions (National Research Council, 2001a). Here, effective teaching strategiesinclude attending explicitly to concepts and connections among facts, skills, and the key ideas of Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-33mathematics with consistent math talk among all participants; creating a shared coherentmathematical structure; and focusing on children struggling with the key math ideas (Hiebert &Grouws, 2007). Here, "struggle" does not indicate frustration but rather, an effort to make senseof math and figure out how to understand or solve a problem without following prescribedprocedures. Mathematical processes, such as problem solving (NGA/CCSSO, 2010) aredeveloped simultaneously. A recent survey of U.S. parents, teachers, and adults revealedopinions consistent with relevant, creative, problem solving–based education. Surprisingly, inthis survey, math was also identified as the most important subject for school and later life(Global Strategy Group, 2023). Comparing domain importance, when they are all important andtightly interrelated, is not the point, but previous research indicated the same groups spent lesstime and attributed less importance to math (Sarama & Clements, 2009), so this survey mayindicate that opinions are changing, with STEM education seen as appropriate for all children. Research supports addressing relational understanding, as it promotes more completemathematical learning and development (Clements & Sarama, 2021; Fuson & Briars, 1990;Gilmore et al., 2017; National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008; Özcan & Doğan, 2017) andsupports skill fluency, while focusing mainly on skills (Blöte et al., 2001; Hiebert & Grouws,2007; Knapp et al., 1992). As one example of these benefits, urban first and second gradersliving in poverty learned to use the standard arithmetic algorithms skillfully and to understandthem conceptually, when taught conceptually, by connecting place-value blocks and writtenrepresentations. Second graders and high-ability first graders performed better than third graderswho received traditional skills-based instruction (Fuson & Briars, 1990). Essential generalcognitive competencies, such as executive function, are strongly related to math learning andachievement (in some studies, more than to other content domains [Clements et al., 2016]).Research suggests that curricula that attend to these relations and build specific supports for thedevelopment of both general cognitive competences and math yield multiple benefitssimultaneously (Blair & Raver, 2014; Clements & Sarama, 2015b; Deaño et al., 2023; Deflorioet al., 2019; Marti et al., 2018; Mulcahy et al., 2021), particularly for populations that have beenhistorically marginalized (Byers et al., 2018; Clements et al., 2023; Dong et al., 2021). This isconsistent with work by African-centered education scholars who call for giving Black “STEAMlearners an educational experience that is relatable, relevant and engaging” (Bailey et al., 2023,p. 8), but also argue the importance of not seeing math and STEM writ large as neutral becauseof European epistemology centered in math and science (e.g., Bailey et al., 2023; BernardMartin, 2009; Wright et al., 2016).Thus, high-quality content learning in math, as well as inliteracy and science, may promote both learning of content and executive function competencies,and do so more effectively than other general approaches, such as the Tools of the Mind PreKcurriculum, whose theoretical core of scaffolding of play has shown small and more often no or anegative effect on executive function in multiple studies (Barnett et al., 2008; Clements et al.,2016; Clements et al., 2023; Farran & Wilson, 2014; Lonigan & Phillips, 2012; Mattera, Rojas,et al., 2021; Nesbitt & Farran, 2021). In sum, teaching for relational goals is research validatedand important to do in collaboration with marginalized families (Sonnenschein et al., 2005). The discussion of false dichotomies and a continuum of instruction approaches applies tolearning in mathematics as well as in language and literacy. Starting with the most unstructuredapproach, math arises naturally and frequently from children’s free play across a range of topics Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-34(Campbell et al., 2018; Seo & Ginsburg, 2004) and in children as young as toddlers (Reikerås,2016; Sim & Xu, 2017). The effects on learning are less well known but remain promising. Morestriking, children in classrooms emphasizing math were found to be likelier to be engaged at ahigher-quality level during free-choice (play) time (Aydogan et al., 2005). Thus, high-qualitymath and free play need not compete for time; doing both makes each richer. On the other hand,research in multiple countries shows minimal math learning during free play (Clements &Sarama, 2021); without guidance, children may build experiential foundations for later mathlearning but not explicit math concepts (Sarama & Clements, 2009a). Other research shows thattalking to children about math in their play promotes learning (Helenius et al., 2016; van Oers,2010). Specifically, interactions that are a good fit with what children are playing and those thatengage children’s thinking and include discussions about math topics promote math achievementwith no detriment to their play (Trawick-Smith et al., 2016). Therefore, it is effective foreducators to seek and use teachable moments in everyday play and routines (Lehrl et al., 2017)and attend to all children, including very young children, who may not be seen as doing math(Björklund & Barendregt, 2016), while recognizing that these moments will constitute only asmall portion of the math activities needed in most cases. Other approaches to play help children learn math reliably. A systematic review of freeplay, guided play, and direct instruction found that guided play was particularly important inmath, with a greater positive effect than direct instruction on early math learning overall andshape recognition specifically, and greater positive effect than free play on spatial vocabulary(Skene et al., 2022). This finding is consistent with research-validated experiments showing thatguided play and playful teaching approaches are more effective than unguided play (Clements &Sarama, 2007), especially for children with fewer previous opportunities to learn math(Clements, Sarama, et al., 2021; Lewis Presser et al., 2015). Indeed, the guided approachsupports equitable education (Fidjeland et al., 2023; Finders et al., 2023; Gawthorpe &Davidson, 2023). Further, programs based only on an “everyday” or “play” 9 approach to matheducation frequently show negligible gains. In comparison, approaches that focus on subject-matter content have strong, consistent, positive effects (Fuller et al., 2017) without impedingsocial-emotional development (Le et al., 2019). High-quality guided play (see also Pound, 2017;van Oers & Poland, 2012) includes having a clear learning goal; ensuring that children have adegree of choice and agency; and using an understanding of children’s thinking and interests tochoose strategies, such as open-ended questions, hints, prompts, and modeling (see alsoGawthorpe & Davidson, 2023; Gervasoni, 2018; Skene et al., 2022). Finally, a playful but intentional teaching approach is more effective in promoting mathlearning than are laissez–faire approaches or teaching based only on “teachable moments”(Ginsburg et al., 2008; Helenius, 2017; Knaus, 2017; Lai et al., 2018; Lehrl et al., 2017),including in free-play contexts such as the block center (Schmitt et al., 2018; Trawick-Smith etal., 2016). This is especially true for children with disabilities (Hojnoski et al., 2018). Latersections address intentional teaching. 9 The quotation marks used here denote the researchers’ use of the terms, possibly indicating a lack ofintentional teaching and dichotomizing approaches so that the benefit of well-designed everyday play andexperiences to promote learning would not be detected. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-35 Unsurprisingly, these issues and suggestions mirror similar findings in the debates ondiscovery learning. Guided discovery has been found more effective than unguided, discoveryteaching (Baroody et al., 2019; Baroody et al., 2014; Paliwal, 2020, but cf. Clark et al., 2012)and better at developing concepts compared with direct instruction alone (de Jong et al., 2023). Despite the benefits of less structured approaches, however, direct instruction isimportant in a multidimensional pedagogical toolkit, including at appropriate junctures withdiscovery- or inquiry-based learning contexts (de Jong et al., 2023; Geary et al., 2019). As asimple example, direct instruction is necessary and efficient for Piaget's category of social-conventional knowledge, such as spelling “four,” writing “4” or other mathematical symbols, andfollowing conventions or procedures. Physical knowledge is learned through acting on objects;in contrast, logical-mathematics knowledge is learned through thinking about one’s actions onobjects (Piaget, 1964). Intentional, playful experiences and guided discovery approaches developdeep understanding and transfer to new situations that are needed for relational understanding inall math topics (Clements & Sarama, 2021; Weisberg et al., 2015), such that children engagewith math beyond interactions with teachers (Gawthorpe & Davidson, 2023). While strategiesfrom the pedagogical toolkit are best deployed depending on the content, context, and children,children who explore math ideas playfully before intentional instruction use a greater variety ofstrategies and attend to the features of problems more than do those instructed first (DeCaro &Rittle-Johnson, 2012). Some preschool math curricula have such play-based sessions. Big Math for Little Kids (Ginsburg, 2003) is another comprehensive math program for 4-and 5-year-olds. It uses activities and stories to develop ideas about key topics in math as well asmathematical language, thinking strategies, and curiosity and positive affect. In summary, educators teaching for relational understanding view children as activelearners who initiate explorations of and interactions with the surrounding world and both adultsand peers (Burchinal et al., 2022; Cobb, 2000; DeVries, 2002; Fröbel, 1885; Gelman, 1994;National Research Council, 2001b; Piaget, 1973; Samuelsson et al., 2006; Yoshikawa et al.,2013). They avoid a preponderance of passive “reception” of knowledge, understanding thatchildren construct knowledge from a wide variety of experiences (Clements, 1997), includingdirect instruction when it contributes to their learning. Such experiences support learning anddevelopment and minimize time wasted in passive experiences, such as waiting (La Paro et al.,2009). Teachers support learning by using an equity lens to watch and listen to children and theway they express their ideas (Delpit, 1988, 2006). Encouraging teachers to see the strengths ofall children, even if it includes ideas and expressions that are unfamiliar allows them to buildmath from what each child’s experiences and ideas. This is complemented by using learningtrajectories approach, along with culturally responsive teaching, to supporting the construction ofmath ideas (Wright et al., 2016; see also the following section). By observing, interacting, andbeing reflective, they base interactions and activities on children’s thinking and learning(Burchinal et al., 2022; Samuelsson et al., 2006). In these ways, they promote joyful, engagedlearning for all children (NAEYC, 2022). A critical feature of teaching approaches that develop relational thinking is that they baseteaching on an understanding of children’s thinking and learning. A research-validated approachthat does so and seamlessly integrates goals, children’s thinking, and the teacher is the learningtrajectories (LTs) construct (Clements & Sarama, 2014a, 2021; Sarama & Clements, 2009b). The Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-36use of LTs has been research validated in multiple studies (Clements & Sarama, 2007; Clementset al., 2023; Dumas et al., 2019; Gray-Lobe et al., 2021; Mattera, Jacob, et al., 2021; Orcan-Kacan et al., 2023; Sarama & Clements, 2019; Stites & Rakes, 2019; Verschaffel et al., 2019).Teachers in these studies used all the strategies in the previously described multidimensionalpedagogical toolkit. Further, they combined brief, active, whole-group sessions; individual work(sometimes using educational technology); incidental learning throughout the day; and small-group sessions. The last was especially important because of the personal involvement and closeinteractions involved, supporting the understanding and use of children’s thinking to differentiateinstruction. Such formative assessment is one of the most strongly empirically supportedteaching approaches (Jiang et al., 2023; National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008; Shepard,2005). Formative assessment entails using an ongoing understanding of children’s thinking andlearning to inform and adapt instruction for groups and individuals. However, formativeassessment is not useful unless teaching is adapted according to what is learned through theassessment (Hill, 2020; National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). Effective teachers ask andanswer the following questions: What do children need to learn? Where are children now? andHow do I help them progress? (Shepard, 2005). Importantly, these questions align with the threecomponents of LTs: goal, developmental progression, and linked teaching activities andstrategies, and this may be why LTs support and contribute to teachers’ professional developmentand teaching prowess (Bardsley, 2006; Sarama, Clements, et al., 2017; Sarama, Clements, et al.,2016) and children’s learning (Clements & Sarama, 2007; Clements et al., 2023b; Hanby, 2018;Koç et al., 2023; Sarama & Clements, 2019). Considering the validating studies cited, it is important to note that most have involved aspecific curriculum, so that the LTs may have been confounded by other differences between thecompared groups. Therefore, studies that rigorously compared LT-based instruction with thesame instruction lacking a critical aspect of LTs were needed to address the specific contributionof LTs. In most cases, these experiments validated the LT approach (Baroody et al., 2022;Baroody et al., under review; Clements, Sarama, Baroody, et al., 2020; Clements, Sarama, et al.,2019; Clements, Sarama, et al., 2021; Sarama et al., 2021). In the case of no significantdifference, the LT itself may have been underresearched—patterning (i.e., the recognition,duplication, and extension of repeating patterns) in this case (Baroody et al., 2021). In summary, teachers who know how to use the three components of an LT are moreeffective in supporting children’s learning (National Research Council, 2009). Without suchknowledge, teachers of young children may offer tasks that are either too easy or too difficult foryoung children, and this mismatch may limit the children’s learning (Clements & Sarama, 2021;Cooper et al., 2007). Playful, meaningful, content-rich education based on LTs benefits allchildren and is especially important for children with disabilities (Clements, Vinh, et al., 2021).Children with various disabilities may operate at levels different from those of their peers and atquite different levels in one topic (say, counting) than in others (such as geometry). LTs offerdifferent ways to introduce math topics, such as arithmetic (e.g., counting, subitizing, orpartitioning), so children can build on their individual strengths. The levels of LTs are clusters ofideas and processes, not just skills, so children can both learn and show competence using avariety of modalities and representations. Finally, LTs can be aligned with formative assessmentand the Individualized Education Program (IEP) or Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-37process. For all children with disabilities or math difficulties, tiered support is important and hasbeen validated as effective (Doabler et al., 2014; Klein et al., 2019). Finally, teaching with the LT approach, asset-based at its core, and simultaneouslyemphasizing culturally responsive teaching and the role of families and of out-of-schoolexperiences, increases identity construction and meaning-making practices for Black boys,supporting their construction of math ideas (B. L. Wright et al., 2016). Such efforts are especiallyimportant given evidence that Black boys are often considered as less able than their white peersin math (D. B. Martin, 2007). Further, the approach has direct empirical support. Blackpreschoolers engaged in a conceptually-grounded, learning trajectories curriculum, gained morethan other groups (Clements et al., 2011) and their gains persisted into fifth grade (Clements etal., 2023). Although beyond the scope of this chapter, there is also a substantial body of research onteaching strategies for relational understanding. For example, research has demonstrated how tostructure curricula in such areas as teacher expectations; group size and structure; math talk,discussions, and connections; adapting activities; implementation; formative assessment;examples and nonexamples; collaboration with families and assurance of positive experiencesfor children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds; and, of course, specificteaching strategies for each math topic (Baroody et al., 2019; Clements et al., 2023a; Clements &Sarama, 2012, 2021; Durden & Curenton, 2018; Ma & Kessel, 2018; National Research Council,2009; Nunes et al., 2016; Sarama, 2019). As an example, a research review found thatmultilingual learners with learning disabilities succeed in learning mathematical problem solvingwhen culturally relevant scaffolding, including visual models, is integral to the teaching–learningprocess (Lei & Xin, 2023). Given the importance of LTs in many research reviews and projects (Baroody et al., 2019;Burchinal et al., 2022; Clements & Sarama, 2021; Frye et al., 2013; National Research Council,2009), and because they are relevant to all domains, additional discussion is found in thesubsequent section on “Learning Trajectories Approaches”. Science and Engineering In science, engineering, and aspects of other domains, curriculum developers are stillworking to achieve the vision of the Framework for K-12 Science Education (National ResearchCouncil, 2012) and to demonstrate genuine alignment with it and the Next Generation ScienceStandards (National Research Council, 2013). Curricula that do align promote and supportinvestigation and design (Broderick & Hong, 2020; National Academies of Sciences, 2022).Such materials can provide information and guidance on science and engineering topics thatmany preschool teachers have not had the opportunity to learn about (National Academies ofSciences, 2022). Developers of high-quality science and engineering curricula ensure that the materialsinclude substantive investigation and design; are conceptually and pedagogically coherent;support teachers’ noticing and understanding of children’s learning and development; andprovide for flexibility (National Academies of Sciences, 2022), including suggestions forincorporations from local cultures and adaptations for all children (the former is particularly Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-38important, given the marginalization of groups for both scientists and children (Burbanks et al.,2020; NASEM, 2022). They help orient children to phenomena and design challenges, includingcollecting, analyzing, and making sense of data. They support children’s development ofexplanations, discourse, and design solutions, the last of which is particularly challenging forpreschool teachers (Domínguez & Goldstein, 2020). A promising approach is building scienceand engineering instruction into activities already taking place in the classroom, thus providingcontextualized experiences that make learning engaging and meaningful (Bustamante et al.,2018). A research review identified categories of activities that have potential of developingchildren’s learning and engagement with STEM fields: educational robots, educational games,argumentative interactions, inquiry-based learning and engineering design, drawing and tellingabout engineers, free play and pretend play, and group membership (Ha, Hai, Mai, & Hanh,2023). Although the number of studies of preschool science and engineering curricula is limited,some studies provide direct evidence for the benefits of following these guidelines. An earlystudy of a preschool science curriculum emphasizing coherence and sequential development ofscience concepts in four modules, along with careful integration with other domains, showed thatchildren were highly engaged with science, socially active, and rarely disruptive (French, 2004).They also made significant gains of approximately 0.5 standard deviation on the Peabody PictureVocabulary Test (French, 2004). 10 Informational texts promote preschoolers’ knowledge ofliteracy forms and can make valuable contributions to all phases of learning science andengineering (Clements & Wright, 2022; Hwang & Duke, 2020; Sarama, Brenneman, et al.,2017). High-quality curricula provide tools that help teachers elicit and guide classroomdiscussions, facilitating children's cognitive and affective engagement with both literacy andscience (Mantzicopoulos & Patrick, 2011), and they can support preschoolers’ basic conceptacquisition and general cognitive competencies (Greenfield et al., 2017; Toran et al., 2019,http://rise.as.tufts.edu). In one study, a curriculum consisting of science games provided high-qualityinstructional support to teachers, including affordances for interactions that develop concepts,analysis, and reasoning (Guarrella et al., 2021). Thus, this science teaching resource providedteachers with a structure for transforming pedagogical prompts into effective teaching practice.Similarly, another study found that an early STEM program contributed to teachers’ skills inteaching STEM concepts, as well as to students’ competencies in STEM and recognition of itsapplications. A challenge in the program’s implementation was the need for more classroom time(Mesutoglu & Corlu, 2023). And, although not a curriculum study per se, a STEM interventionin preschool increased creativity and problem-solving scores (Yalçın & Erden, 2021). Further, for STEM especially, high-quality curricula help all children, especially thosewho are members of marginalized groups, to identify with the STEM fields by including a wide 10 The committee cautions against using gains made on norm-referenced and individually administeredmeasures of receptive vocabulary based on words in Standard American English (e.g., Peabody Picture VocabularyTest) as the sole marker/measure of children’s academic achievement. Research has pointed to the potential of suchtools to be susceptible to bias if they do not adequately capture the experiences, familiar concepts, and culturalnuances of children from racially, culturally, and linguistically minoritized children as well as children fromhouseholds with lower incomes and children with disabilities (Champion et al., 2003; Restrepo et al., 2006). Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-39range of people working in the field and meaningful STEM topics. For example, incorporatingculturally-based learning experiences focused on care for the environment, such as recycling aswell as caring for plant and animal life, including the specific places and environments wherechildren live (National Academies of Sciences, 2022). Vignettes from a Head Start Center on theWhite Earth reservation in northwest Minnesota incorporating cultural themes show children’sengagement, interest, and curiosity about animal tracks (Dubosarsky et al., 2011). In anotherinstance, the Conscious Ingenuity (CI), a K-8th grade African-centered STEM program usesSTEAM to build Black children’s character, confidence, and capabilities. CI uses African-centered cultural practices, such as call and response, affirmation recitals, communication styles,cultural imagery and problem-solving lessons aligned with their community (Bailey et al., 2023).While a promising approach being implemented in public school such as Baltimore City Publicschools, more rigorous evidence is needed to further substantiate this program’s approach onchildren’s capabilities and learning outcomes. High-quality STEM experiences have the potentialto ensure that children’s socio-demographics, such as their race, gender, place, ability, or class,do not determine children’s ability to meaningfully engage in and contribute to others’ learningby not solely centering the dominant groups’ experiences, resources, language and ability butmeaningfully strengthen children’s domain-general skills, such as their approaches to learningand executive functioning (Bustamante et al., 2018). As in other domains, engaging families inSTEM experiences is an important aspect of preschool education. Although interventions oftenyield small effects, providing materials and resources for home use appears a promising feature(Zucker et al., 2022). All children have the right to benefit from high-quality STEM experiences that havestrong potential to help to develop science and engineering and also other domains, as well asapproaches-to-learning and executive functioning strategies (Bustamante et al., 2018). Culturallyresponsive, asset-based approaches emphasizing the importance of families and of leveragingout-of-school practices help provide African-American males build positive identity constructionand provide meaning-making practices that promote stronger STEM learning (Wright et al.,2016). Issues of investigating social justice issues such as toxins and other problems in specific,low-resource areas, have little research but could be pursued in future curriculum developmentprojects. Other Domains Briefly, a note that other domains including social and emotional learning, are not oftendiscussed as “content” domains. However, they do have conceptual or “content” aspects. Theseinclude the recognition, understanding, and appropriate expression of emotions, known asemotional literacy and language, and emotional self-regulation (Joseph et al., 2021), as well ascognitive problem-solving strategies that teach children to think about consequences andalternatives before acting (Fox & Hemmeter, 2009; Joseph & Strain, 2010; Sarama, Brenneman,et al., 2017; Webster-Stratton, Reid, & Hammond, 2001). These are important aspects of social-emotional development and the learning of social studies—the latter needing more research. Inaddition, the Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework and state learning standards ofteninclude other domains such as the visual and performing arts, physical development and Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-40education, health and safety, approaches to learning, and social studies (e.g., Head Start, 2023;Maryland State Department of Education, 2011). Educators’ Roles Educators vary in their sustained use of a curriculum. To support invested, improvedimplementation, it is crucial for developers and publishers of high-quality curricula to considerhow to effectively promote teachers' autonomy in choosing and implementing a curriculum(making productive adaptations [Brown & Campione, 1996]). High-quality curricula also need topromote teachers’ access to resources and support for teachers from program administrators(Lieber et al., 2010; Sarama & Clements, 2021; Sarama, Clements, et al., 2016). See the sectionCURRICULA FOR CHILDREN AND THEIR TEACHERS: EDUCATIVE CURRICULA. CURRICULUM TYPES AND APPROACHES This section provides additional information about the two general types of curriculadiscussed previously—comprehensive and domain-specific. It then describes integrated andinterdisciplinary curricula, which can fall into either of those two categories. Next, it provides anexample of culturally relevant and sustaining Indigenous curriculum approaches. The sectionthen includes a discussion of frequently used approaches to delivering curriculum content—theproject approach, the Reggio Emilia approach, cycle of inquiry, and learning trajectories.Although these approaches are not specific curricula, they are designed to promote children’sdeep engagement in thinking and learning about interesting and relevant topics of study andquestions to investigate and may also be part of a comprehensive curriculum. Next, Montessorieducation, one of the oldest approaches to early education, is described and research on themodel is presented. The final subsection reviews technology for children and their teachers. Comprehensive and Domain-Specific Curricula As described earlier, research reviews suggest that curricula focused on one domain havegreater positive effects on those targeted domains than comprehensive curricula (Chaudry et al.,2017; Jenkins et al., 2018; Weiland et al., 2018; Yoshikawa et al., 2016; Yoshikawa et al., 2013).That is, domain-specific (developed by experts in a given domain [Chaudry et al., 2017]), play-infused curricula supported by professional development and coaching for teachers have beenidentified as the most likely to increase instructional quality in large-scale preschool programs(Jenkins et al., 2018). There are also examples of empirically validated efforts to incorporate adomain-specific component into a comprehensive curriculum (an approach strongly supported bystate leaders [Little & Gragson, 2023]). Initially, the Boston early childhood program, forexample, included a language and literacy and a math curriculum in its Focus on PreKcurriculum, and multiple rigorous studies validated this approach as improving literacy, andespecially vocabulary and math skills (Clements et al., 2011; Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013). It isimportant to point out that in addition to having well-qualified certified teachers, Boston publicprekindergarten sites were NAEYC accredited to provide a baseline of high-quality programprovision. The substantial and meaningful gains were complemented by an increase in executive Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-41function abilities due to the two domain-specific curricula. All groups benefited, but particularlyLatine children (Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013). A different math curriculum, Numbers PlusPreschool Mathematics, added to a comprehensive HighScope curriculum also led to greatermath learning, although the effects were small (Wakabayashi et al., 2020). A review across five large-scale evaluations identified six potentially important featuresof both comprehensive and domain-specific curricula: a significant focus on specificinstructional content, inclusion of detailed prompts or suggestions for the lesson while alsoincorporating teacher voice (described below), time for planning, use of real-time data, and earlychildhood training for administrators (Weiland et al., 2018). An example of detailed prompts isthe provision, for each book to be read aloud, of explicit illustrations of how to accomplish theassociated goals, which range from basic comprehension and recall to high-level inferencemaking, depending on the book. Such prompts are not intended to be repeated as given, butinstead are reminders of key pedagogical strategies, vocabulary, and so forth that teachers canread in advance or have in front of them as they teach. In other words, these curricula are “soft-scripted,” providing guidance but not requiring compliance. Inclusion of teacher voice is acaution that such soft-scripting is not presented as sentences to be read, as well as guidance forprofessional development providers that scripting is intended as a two-way communication withprofessionals rather than requiring compliance. This perspective is grounded in the assumptionthat the teacher–curriculum relationship is interactive and dynamic (Drake et al., 2014). Integrated and Interdisciplinary Curricula Integrated curricula simultaneously address learning goals across content areas ordevelopmental domains. Integrated curriculum help meet the challenge of covering manylearning goals in a limited period of instructional time. Such curricula can also help childrenmake meaningful connections between topics of study. For example, literacy and social-emotional goals might be addressed within a single experience or lesson, such as reading booksabout friendship or conflict resolution. Integrated curricula also can support anti-bias education and other inclusive practices(Derman-Sparks & A.B.C. Task Force, 1989; Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2020) byincorporating reading or writing of stories that promote positive identity for children of all races,ethnicities, languages, and abilities; respect for differences; and examples of fairness, agency,and actions that promote social justice (Brooks & Browne, 2012; Fleming et al., 2015; Loflink &Loya, 2010a). The terms interdisciplinary and integrated are both often used to describe approaches thatconnect learning across content domains, but the terms are rarely distinguished. Integration canbe partial, where one domain often plays a supporting role, or full, where all domains arecombined in major lessons, instructional activities, or projects. In contrast, interdisciplinarycurricula are selective: domains are connected only when doing so serves each domain, so thatthat each retains its core conceptual and epistemological structures (National Academies ofSciences, 2022). Although designed for slightly older children (kindergarten to second grade), anevidence-based curriculum is Science, Oral Language, and Literacy Development from the Start Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-42of School (SOLID Start, Wright & Gotwals, 2017a, 2017b). The curriculum includes topics ofstudy based on scientific phenomena that children can observe and investigate, such as insects orbirds on the playground. Playful learning experiences, relevant information books, and teacher-scaffolded discussions are included. Children draw and write to represent and record their ideasand findings. Because the authors do not consider literacy (reading, writing, speaking, listening,images, representations, etc.) as a “discipline,” one could view this curriculum as fully integratedor even interdisciplinary for the focal competencies in literacy, language, and science (NationalAcademies of Sciences, 2022), each of which showed improved outcomes for children (Wright& Gotwals, 2017a, 2017b). One example, the Connect4Learning (C4L) preschool curriculum is based explicitly onthe interdisciplinary approach to literacy, language, mathematics, science, engineering, andsocial-emotional development (Sarama, Brenneman, et al., 2016, 2017). When appropriate,children might concentrate mainly on a mathematical exploration. Even then, development of thelanguage and social-emotional domains is always involved. All components of C4L are drawnfrom research-validated curricula, and pilot studies have shown improvements in all includeddomains. Larger scale studies are underway (Sarama, Brenneman, et al., 2017). Approaches to Curriculum Implementation Curriculum content and early learning standards often come directly from the subject-matter disciplines: what children need to know and be able to do in mathematics, science,language, literacy, health, social studies, and the arts. Such content teaches accurate informationabout the world and how to obtain new knowledge. Because the content knowledge is oftenremoved from children’s direct, cultural experiences, however, pre-K curriculum is typicallyorganized conceptually. Conceptual organizers can make content knowledge more meaningful,engaging, and understandable for young children, particularly for children from culturally andlinguistically minoritized groups. Many curricula, including those that are comprehensive, interdisciplinary, and domain-specific, incorporate a concept- or theme-based approach in which in-depth learning experiencesare designed around a broad topic of study or meaningful conceptual organizers, such as theclassroom community, families, the environment, or building structures (Sarama, Brenneman, etal., 2017; Sarama & Clements, 2015a; Schickedanz et al., 2005). Boston’s Focus on PreK for 3-year-olds, for example, includes 6- to 8-week units of study such as world of color and familyand friends. Eight-week-long topics for 4-year-olds include together in our community andbuilding our working city. 11 Culturally responsive and affirming curriculum, such as that forNative Americans described in Box 4-1, may be conceptually organized and place-based aroundchildren’s family and community cultural traditions and lived experiences. BOX 4-1 Indigenous Curricula and Pedagogy A review of culturally responsive approaches to curriculum implementation found that approaches were most comprehensive and responsive to the community in curricula designed for and implemented among Indigenous families. These curricula (e.g., Growing 11 https://www.bpsearlylearning.org/focus-on-prek. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-43 and Learning with Young Native Children, Doors to Discovery, Food Resource Equity and Sustainability for Health [FRESH] curriculum, Emotion-Based Prevention Program, and I Can Problem Solve) tend to be codeveloped by teachers and communities, with a heavy emphasis on cultural significance, meaningful learning, and community engagement (Burstein et al., 2014; Gilliard & Moore, 2007; Wetherill et al., 2021). Increasingly, Indigenous early learning programs, such as the Walatowa Head Start in New Mexico, are transitioning their curricula and programming to support local Indigenous worldviews and language immersion as well. In their curriculum for Indigenous children, Gilliard and Moore (2007) describe “teaching within a culturally relevant context, building a sense of belongingness and community through ritual, and respecting children, families, and community [as] were essential to defining the Native American Indian culture within these early learning programs” (p. 251). Similarly, the approach of Graue and colleagues (2014) to cultural relevance is described as family based. Burstein and colleagues (2014) also describe adaptations of early reading curricula (e.g., Doors to Discovery, Opening the World of Learning) through cultural wraparound adaptations designed specifically for Indigenous children and families (e.g., changing examples to make them contextually relevant, including words in Indigenous languages, adding culturally relevant artifacts and props, creating thematic unit books that align with Indigenous cultures). Thompson and colleagues (2008) designed a curriculum toolkit for Indigenous communities, with the curriculum designed to change according to the community’s needs. The curriculum is “centered in each child’s heritage,” and children make contributions to the heritage (Thompson et al., 2008, p. 399). Wetherill and colleagues (2021) described FRESH curriculum, a tribally led gardening curriculum for Indigenous preschool children intended to mirror and match Indigenous concepts. For instance, the authors describe a lesson in which butter bean, squash, and corn are addressed to reflect the Indigenous concept of the Three Sisters Crops (i.e., growing butter beans with squash and corn). These curricula represent a unique, community-informed approach to preschool curriculum that offers possibilities to consider for increasing the cultural responsiveness of curricula in other communities. Nonetheless, there have been relatively few research studies of the implementation and outcomes of Indigenous curricula. This limited presence of research likely reflects limitations in collecting valid and reliable measures of cultural concepts on which such curricula focus, the curricula’s orientation toward benefit to local community context rather than generalizability, and the time needed to overcome historical and enduring impacts of colonization aimed at dismantling the very cultural teachings that Indigenous communities strive to sustain and revitalize through culturally grounded curriculum today. Frequently used general approaches to curriculum implementation, including the projectapproach (Helm & Katz, 2016; Katz et al., 2014), the Reggio Emilia approach, the Cycle ofInquiry (Broderick & Hong, 2020; Edwards et al., 1993, 2012; Rinaldi, 2021), and the LearningTrajectories (LTs) approach, represent ways of conceptually organizing and deeply engagingchildren with curriculum content. Developers of high-quality curricula are aware of theseapproaches to creating and implementing a curriculum, especially their similarities anddifferences and the empirical research on each. Each of these approaches is described in the nextsections followed by a discussion of Montessori education.The Project Approach The project approach for preschool children has long been widely valued and used inearly childhood education (Helm & Katz, 2016; Katz et al., 2014). This approach is a way ofengaging children over an extended period of time in investigations within the social and cultural Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-44contexts of their lived experiences. The project approach organizes curriculum around an in-depth investigation of a real-world topic, focused on questions posed by children, the teacher, orthe teacher and children together (see Box 4-2). Projects are effective ways of integrating curriculum content and promoting children’sunderstanding and thinking (Duke, 2015; Snider & Vartuli, 2020). Well-planned and well-implemented projects engage children’s interests and eagerness to learn, focus their attention,require higher-order thinking, and are joyful. The teacher needs to build on children’s interests orto cultivate their interest in a topic worth learning about, as well as to decide whether a topic isimportant, practical, and consistent with the learning standards and goals of the larger curriculum(Helm & Katz, 2016; Helm & Snider, 2020). A project has three phases. Phase 1 occurs when a possible topic emerges either fromchildren’s interest or from an idea initiated by the teacher. During this phase, the class generatesideas, thoughts, and questions about the topic. Good topics offer opportunities for firsthandexperiences, observation, interaction with experts, and research. During Phase 2, children engagein an investigation of the topic. The questions the children want answered should be broadenough to allow for substantive research. Children might take field trips, hear from visitingexperts, or conduct experiments. Phase 3 is a culminating event during which childrencommunicate, share, and present their work and findings to others, usually families, thecommunity, or peers in their class or school. The project approach draws on and cultivateschildren’s interests and motivation to learn. Projects should engage children in thinking and problem solving; finding answers to theirquestions; and building comprehension, background content knowledge and skills. Research onthe project approach finds that although it is challenging to implement, it is most effective whenteachers have content knowledge themselves (National Academies of Sciences, 2018b). Forexample, Project ABC2, the project approach plus coaching focused on content, wasimplemented in five Kansas City area Head Start and community programs (Snider, Holley, &Usman, 2017). Project approach fidelity plus content coaching significantly improved teachers’Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) instructional support scores on conceptdevelopment, quality of feedback, and language modeling, which are persistently the lowest ofCLASS scores in all programs. Another study in Head Start classrooms (Vartuli, Bolz, & Wilson,2014) found that coaching resulted in higher project approach fidelity scores which predictedhigher scores for the CLASS Instructional Support, Emotional Support, and ClassroomOrganization domains. BOX 4-2 Children Discovering Their World The project approach is the basis for a digital pre-K curriculum supported by the state of Maryland. The Maryland State Department of Education’s Division of Early Childhood funded researchers at the University of Maryland to develop Children Discovering Their World, two fully digital comprehensive project-based curricula—Children Explore Their World for 3-year-olds and Children Study Their World for 4-year-olds. 12 The curricula are distributed free to licensed child care centers in Maryland under a grant from the state. Programs apply, and if they are accepted, the lead teacher receives an iPad loaded with the 3- or 4-year-old curriculum (eight project guides with lesson plans across content areas), all the children's 12 https://education.umd.edu/cdw Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-45 books in the lessons (not digital), and an array of content materials, plus professional development and coaching. Embedded are literacy and math scope and sequence, strategies to support multilingual learners, guidance on instruction for children with Individualized Education Programs, and strategies for differentiating instruction and implementing universal design for learning. The Maryland Early Learning Assessment is the formative assessment. The curricula are research based, but a large-scale evaluation of Children Study Their World for 4-year-olds in Head Start was interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Given that the program is fully digital, lessons can be updated as new research is published, especially on literacy and social-emotional development. Project-based learning holds promise for enhancing learning outcomes for children fromlow-income families. Although it was conducted with children older than pre-K, one studydeveloped and successfully implemented two project-based units based on state social studiesstandards and content area literacy in four second grade classrooms in low-income schooldistricts (Halvorsen et al., 2012). The achievement of students in the low-income districts wasthen compared with that of students in higher-income districts. Results showed no statisticallysignificant differences on standards-based assessments of social studies and literacy between thechildren from lower- and higher-income families.The Reggio Emilia Approach The Reggio Emilia approach originated in the exemplary, municipally run preschools andinfant-–toddler centers in the city of Reggio Emilia, Italy. Since the approach first became widelyknown in the early 1990s, it has inspired educators throughout the United States and the world(Broderick & Hong, 2020; Edwards et al., 1993 Edwards et al, 2012; Rinaldi, 2021). LorisMalaguzzi, founder of the approach, used the metaphor “the hundred languages of children” tocommunicate the genius of every child. The “hundred languages” refer to the many wayschildren learn using various forms of media, such as drawing, painting, sculpting, writing,photography, video, music, dance, words, and numbers. These are used to engage, build, anddisplay children’s understanding of the world. The approach emanates from the image of thechild as rich in potential, strong, and powerful and as a citizen with rights. In Reggio, “childrenwith special rights” (in the United States called “children with special needs” or “children withdisabilities”) are given priority in enrollment. The Reggio Emilia approach is not a curriculum, nor is it a model. It involvescollaborative project work among small groups of children and co-construction of knowledgeand understanding between teachers and children (Edwards et al., 2012; Rinaldi, 2021). Inaddition, teachers and children place themselves in zones of proximal development, continuallyscaffolding each other’s learning. Curriculum is a process of inviting and sustaining learning. InReggio-inspired schools, the curriculum emerges from children’s interests in topics or questionsand their desire to find out more or to solve a problem. However, teachers plan in advance forpossible directions the work will take to achieve goals. They listen carefully to children and meetregularly to discuss how to further the children’s involvement and deepen their understanding.The Reggio approach is described as a “pedagogy of listening” (Rinaldi, 2021). In Reggio, schools have a special teacher, called an atelierista, who is knowledgeableabout the visual arts and media and works closely with teachers and children. A speciallyequipped studio space contains a wide range of materials used by children to represent their ideasand thinking in projects. Short- and long-term projects are a major teaching and learning strategy Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-46in Reggio schools. Facilitated by teachers, children work in small groups on a topic or a projectof interest to them that emerges from the children’s experiences (Vecchi, 2002). The growth in children’s thinking that occurs through project work is captured in one ofthe most compelling aspects of the approach—documentation. As a project proceeds, educatorscompile and display representations of the children’s thinking and learning using various media(photographs of them at work, drawings, sculptures, constructions, writing, and transcripts oftheir discussions). Documentation is not merely for display; it is used for children to revisit,reflect on, and deepen their thinking (Rinaldi, 2021). Although there is a dearth of research on the efficacy of the Reggio approach in theUnited States, the approach has inspired educators throughout the country and the world sincefirst becoming widely known in the early 1990s. A survey of California state preschoolsconducted by the Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction (Neville-Morgan, NASEMListening session) found that 40% of preschool programs reported using a locally developedcurriculum or the Reggio Emilia approach. In addition, a large-scale, longitudinal randomizedcontrol trial of the approach was carried out in Colombia. The study examined the impact ofhigh-quality, project- and play-based, Reggio-inspired programs on young children from infancyto age 5 (Bernal et al., 2022; Nores et al., 2018). The programs incorporated positive teacher–child interactions, integration of multiple content and developmental domains, and intenseprofessional development. Among preschoolers, large effects were found in the areas of math,language, literacy, executive function, and health (Bernal et al., 2022).Cycle of Inquiry Although similar, the project approach and Cycle of Inquiry (COI) approach are not thesame (Broderick & Hong, 2020). The COI approach also starts with children’s interests, butteachers and children continually redesign the curriculum together as it develops (Broderick &Hong, 2020). This approach was initially inspired by researchers’ encounters with ReggioEmilia. COI involves six steps beginning with teachers’ systematic observations anddocumentation of children’s play and questions. Teachers then interpret children’s thinking andcreate a curriculum action plan based on their observations and interpretations of the children’splay. Next, they create plans to provoke children’s thinking and inquiry, set up and facilitate play,and finally reflect on and evaluate children’s learning and standards met. As with the Reggioapproach, teachers engage children in representing and re-representing their ideas related to thetopic of study using various media and documentation of their learning. Although COI is not acurriculum, case studies of the COI approach have found that it supports productive discussionsbetween preschool teachers and children (Broderick et al., 2022) and could be incorporated intobroader curricula (Hong, Broderick, McAuliffe, 2020).Learning Trajectories (LTs) Approaches As described previously, LTs are descriptions of the paths of children’s thinking andlearning in a specific domain (STEM or literacy), called a developmental progression, and arelated, conjectured route through a set of instructional tasks, whose purpose is to support thedevelopment of a curriculum or a curriculum component (Clements & Sarama, 2014a; Simon,1995). Thus, LTs have three interrelated components, (1) a goal, (2) a developmental progressionof levels of thinking, and (3) instructional activities correlated with each level. To attain a certaincompetence in a given topic or domain (the goal), students learn each successive level (the Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-47developmental progression), aided by tasks (instructional activities) designed to build the mentalactions-on-objects that enable thinking at each higher level (Clements & Sarama, 2014a;Maloney et al., 2014). Although LTs have been created and studied most commonly in the area of matheducation, LTs have been developed and have shown benefits in many domains, such aslanguage, communication, and literacy; social-emotional development; physical development;and executive functions (Jen et al., 2023). Across domains, these benefits include encouragingdeep, gradual learning and unpacking the complexity of each domain (Jen et al., 2023). All curriculum approaches benefit from the infusion of knowledge of the domains,children’s thinking and learning in the domains, and effective strategies for guiding andsupporting this thinking and learning. LTs approaches provide that guidance and can thuscontribute to most all other curriculum approaches (Broderick & Hong, 2020; Clements &Sarama, 2021; Dorr, 2017; Duke et al., 2016; Edwards et al., 1993, 2012; Helm & Katz, 2016;Hendrick, 1997; Karademir & Akman, 2021; Katz et al., 2014; Leung, 2023; Sarama &Clements, 2009b; Sarama et al., 2021; Tullis, 2011; Wellen, 2018). Research shows that childrenexperiencing an LTs-based curriculum learn more math and learn at a faster rate than othergroups (Clements et al., 2011; Clements et al., 2013). Other analyses have found that all childrenwho experience LTs-based instruction have steeper growth curves than control groups, but thatthis significant improvement in learning rate appears to benefit Black and Latine students most,“highlighting the critical societal need for research-based mathematics curricula in preschool”(Dumas et al., 2019, p.1). The use of LTs as a basis for curricula in multiple content domains hasreceived broad empirical support (e.g., Baroody et al., 2022; Burchinal et al., 2022; Clements,Sarama, et al., 2019; Ebby et al., 2020; Maloney et al., 2014; Mattera, Jacob, et al., 2021;National Research Council, 2009; Sarama et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2023). However, given thecontinued concern that White children and their outcomes are deemed the norm given thehistorical roots of the achievement gap, what outcomes are used to determine competency, andthe theoretical basis for teaching and learning, more culturally-grounded research and criticallens are needed to ensure the approaches and outcomes being used are not solely centeringWhite, English-speaking, middle-class, and able-bodied epistemologies (Ascenzi-Moreno &Seltzer; Gardner-Neblet et al., 2023). Two other approaches previously discussed in this chapter—the Reggio Emilia approachand Cycle of Inquiry—show promise, although scientific evidence has not yet been presented toinform the field as to their effectiveness.Montessori Education Originating more than 100 years ago, the Montessori educational approach was designedby Maria Montessori during her work with young children, who were considered to havecognitive disabilities, living in the impoverished areas of Rome, Italy. The Montessori method isa whole child comprehensive curriculum and instructional approach incorporating bothindependent hands-on, child-directed experiences and academic content, with teachers acting asguides and facilitators as opposed to direct instructors (Lillard, 2013). Two professionalorganizations, the American Montessori Society (AMS) and the Association MontessoriInternationale (AMI) establish standards for teacher preparation and accreditation of schools thatdetermine fidelity of implementation. Montessori schools must meet specific criteria thatinclude: in preschool, multi-age classrooms serve 3- to 6-year-olds; certified teachers whocomplete an approved course of study; well-organized classrooms that include numerous Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-48specially designed multi-sensory, self-correcting materials; 3-hour periods of independent worktime; small group and individual lessons; positive discipline; and no grades. During work time,children are free to choose constructive activities that promote learning in language, writing andreading, math, geography, culture, music, and art. The Montessori curriculum also emphasizespractical life skills that promote positive social relationships, as well as correct steps to performpractical tasks such as rolling up a work mat. In keeping with Montessori’s philosophy thateducation is necessary for peace, the American Montessori Society promotes peace and socialjustice including an emphasis on anti-bias, antiracist (ABAR) practices. and they offer a 12-weekABAR certificate program for teachers (AMS, 2024, learn.amshq.org). Debs & Brown (2017)describe challenges to ensuring that Montessori programs serve students of color, and also waysMontessori applies to implementing culturally responsive and sustaining practices. Among theirexamples are integration of Montessori with Hawaiian language and culture-based programs(Schonleber, 2011) and Native American Montessori programs aligned with cultural preservationgoals (e.g. Ayer, 2016; Johnston, 2018). There are approximately 5000 Montessori schools in the United States. Despite itshistoric origins serving children living in poverty, most Montessori schools in the U.S. servemiddle- to high-income families in private schools. However, in recent years there has been anincreasing number of public Montessori schools, primarily magnet or charter, going from 300 in2014 to 500 in 2023 (American Montessori Society, 2024) with students of color comprising amajority (Debs & Brown, 2017). Public schools typically use a random lottery for admission.However, a study conducted by Child Trends (Hilty et al., 2021) found several barriers toequitable access including that lotteries are not truly random, and programs are located inmajority White communities, Studies of Montessori have produced mixed results attributable tolimitations such as selection bias and lack of fidelity (Hilty et al., 2021). To address the lack of control for fidelity of implementation, one study (Lillard, 2012)compared outcomes for preschool children in three conditions: high fidelity classic Montessoriprograms, lower fidelity Montessori supplemented with conventional preschool materials andactivities, and conventional preschool with no Montessori. Children were assessed at thebeginning of the year and did not differ on a range of children’s social and academic outcomes.At the end of the year, children in classic Montessori demonstrated statistically significant gainson measures of executive function, reading, math, vocabulary, and social problem-solving withthe largest effect sizes for EF. However, important limitations of the study are lack of randomassignment to program and a well-educated, middle-income and mostly White sample. By contrast, a more recent longitudinal study was conducted in a high poverty cityutilizing a randomized lottery (Lillard et al., 2017). Half the sample “won” the lottery and werein Montessori while the other half attended public and private “business as usual” schools.Children were assessed 4 times over the 3 years of Montessori preschool (ages-3-6) on a range ofmeasures including academic ability, theory of mind, social problem solving, executive function,mastery orientation, school enjoyment, and creativity. Although the samples did not differ at theoutset, over time the Montessori children demonstrated better outcomes on academicachievement, social understanding, mastery orientation, and liking school. The most promisingfinding was that over time, scores of lower income children in the Montessori group convergedwith scores of higher income children in the other schools, demonstrating potential to lessen theincome opportunity gap. Nevertheless, a major limitation is that using a lottery sample is not arandomized control trial and further research is needed. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-49 In 10 states Montessori education is on the approved list of prekindergarten curricula (seeChapter 8). South Carolina, the state with the largest percentage of Montessori public schools inthe U.S. (serving preschool through 8th grade), conducted a large-scale, multi-year mixed-methodevaluation to inform future investment (Culclasure et al., 2018). The study examined fidelity;demographic makeup of schools; effects on academic and behavior outcomes; and teachers’attitudes. Rather than primarily serving White, middle-income students as is often the case,public Montessori in South Carolina was found to serve a diverse population of students with54% from low-income families and 45% children of color. To evaluate impact, Montessoristudents were matched to non-Montessori students with the same demographics and baselineperformance. Montessori students demonstrated greater achievement in language arts, math, andsocial studies, better attendance, and behavior, with higher levels of creativity and executivefunction found in some years. Despite limitations, including variations in fidelity and possibleselection bias, the South Carolina study is the largest comprehensive, longitudinal evaluation ofpublic Montessori to date. Technology for Children and Their Teachers Educational technology has the potential to make positive contributions to earlyeducation, and decades of research has found that technology can provide developmentally-appropriate experiences for young children (Clements & Swaminathan, 1995; Hsin, Li, & Tsai,2014; Sigdel, 2017). However, some organizations firmly opposed to young children’stechnology use and some teachers retain a bias against technology (J. S. Lee & Ginsburg, 2007;Sargent, 2017) that often contradicts research evidence (Herodotou, 2018; Hsin et al., 2014;Lindahl & Folkesson, 2012; Reeves, Gunter, & Lacey, 2017). Research has refuted most of thesecriticisms, while accepting that not all uses are beneficial (Clements & Sarama, 2003; Lentz,Seo, & Gruner, 2014; Sarama & Clements, 2020). For example, homes with more technologybetter support mathematics learning (e.g., X. Li, Atkins, & Stanton, 2006; Navarro et al., 2012),and this is particularly so for certain children (e.g., African-American children, Judge, 2005). This is not to say that the more media children engage with the better. However, it doessuggest a miscommunication about “media.” That is, large consumptions of media in all formsand content can be harmful. Children who use more entertainment media, for example, havesmaller gains in assertiveness, social skills, and task orientation. These effects emerge mainly athigh rather than moderate levels of use of such media (Dore, Xiao, Sayers, Purtell, & Justice,2023). In contrast, children who use more educational technology have larger gains in taskorientation and assertiveness and those using technology that focuses on social-emotionalcontent have larger gains in task orientation and behavioral control (Dore et al., 2023). Thus, it is important to state that this section addresses educational technology, which hasthe potential to make multiple contributions to early education. However, whether this potentialis realized depends on which technology is used and how–especially how it relates to the adoptedcurriculum. Research on different models of educational technology—technology-assistedinstruction (including practice, tutorials, tasks, tools, and games); e-books, word processing andother tools, digital manipulatives, exploratory environments, and scientific tools and simulations;programming, coding, and robotics; and combinations of these—has identified the specificbenefits of each. These benefits may be especially promising for children with disabilities.Unfortunately, reality often falls short of realizing this promise. To realize these benefits,teachers require resources, support, and professional development. Fortunately, there is agrowing research base for providing each. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-50Technology for Children To begin, debates regarding how technology can be useful in improving learning ofteninvolve false dichotomies. For example, some educators focus solely on drill and practiceapproaches, which, if used alone, can be ineffective and even mis-educative (Dewey,1938,1997). Other educators tolerate only “open-ended” or (narrowly defined) developmentallyappropriate technology applications. Evidence countering such dichotomous thinking exists forkey domains: social-emotional development; literacy and language; STEM subjects; and generalcognitive competences, such as executive function and creativity (e.g., Clements & Sarama,2003). Types of software and pedagogical approaches that have shown benefits range widely.They include, for example, practice; technological manipulatives; simulations; exploratoryenvironments; programming (coding); digital books; games; and creative development of text,art, music, and videos. Furthermore, potential contributions to the curriculum have also beenshown for high-quality software, implemented well, similarly shows that technology cancontribute to the curriculum (e.g., Burnett, 2010; Clements & Sarama, 2003; Cuban, 2001;Hartle, 2020; Herodotou, 2018; Hsin et al., 2014; Larkin et al., 2022). Young children prefertechnology that differentiates tasks, offering more support or more challenge when indicated forindividuals, and that provides children with choices and autonomy (LeSage & Ruttenberg-Rozen,2021). Technology also can make special contributions for children with disabilities, includingand beyond assistive technologies (Clements, Vinh, et al., 2021). Although such benefits of educational technology are generally seen with high-qualitysoftware, a caution is that most easily available software is not of high quality (see Callaghan &Reich, 2018). In the development of high-quality curricula, it is important to avoid commonlimitations on quality, such as missing instructions, poor feedback (corrective only, notinformative), ineffective guidance and modeling on how to solve a problem that children couldnot solve, and lack of responsiveness to children's individual levels of thinking. Young childrenprefer technology that differentiates tasks, offering more support or more challenge whenindicated for individuals, and that provides children with choices and autonomy (LeSage &Ruttenberg-Rozen, 2021). Building such formative assessment into digital curricula and thendoing fine-grained research to evaluate and continually refine it is a promising avenue foreducational technology. As a research example, missing even one important characteristic, suchas individualizing according to children’s needs, resulted in the lack of any gains from a digitalprogram in literacy for children entering with low literacy scores (Kreskey & Truscott, 2016).Although positive characteristics of high-quality software are less well defined, researchprovides some guidance. Some characteristics apply across different software types andpedagogical approaches, while others are unique to an approach. In general, as with anycurriculum component, the choice of software should serve the goal for learning and be based onevidence. Finally, high-quality technology experiences can facilitate positive social-emotionaldevelopment (Clements & Sarama, 2003). According to a review of 87 studies, most studiesshowed that technology use enhances children's collaboration and interaction with others and, forsome, their development of cultural identity (Hsin et al., 2014).Technology for Teachers There is a growing literature on what professional development teachers want and need inorder to implement technology well, as well as how technology can enhance the implementation Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-51of professional development (Clements & Sarama, 2002b; Ikram, 2017; Kim et al., 2017;Langub & Warner, 2018; Marklund, 2015; Papadakis & Kalogiannakis, 2019; Sarama &Clements, 2019; Sundqvist, 2017). For example, coaching teachers virtually has been successfuland is more scalable than other approaches (Kinzie et al., 2014; Whittaker et al., 2015). Web-based tools can offer multimedia that contribute to the understanding of children’s learning, aswell as teaching strategies consistent with children’s needs (Clements & Sarama, 2017/2023).Further, the design and content of software, even that for children, may contribute to teachers’professional development. This point applies to all components of a curriculum, an issuediscussed in the next section. Digital curriculum resources, compared with traditional textversions, offer curriculum developers a wide variety of ways to support teachers in interactingwith children around domains and implementing curricula in new ways, providing personalizedlearning, and melding formative and summative assessments (Pepin et al., 2017).CURRICULA FOR CHILDREN AND THEIR TEACHERS: EDUCATIVE CURRICULA Created with this purpose in mind, curriculum materials can contribute to a change in theeducational system writ large and particularly to professional development (Ball & Cohen, 1996;Beyer & Davis, 2015). That is, they are part of educative curricula, materials designed to supportboth teacher and child learning (Drake et al., 2014), including resources and structures that helpteachers gain profound knowledge of the content to be taught (Cabell et al., 2023; Ma, 1999), aswell as knowledge of children’s thinking and learning and how to support their learning(Clements & Sarama, 2021). Arguably, no category of the workforce is more in need ofeducative curricula than early childhood, populated with teachers and staff who are giveninsufficient professional preparation, resources, and pay (Institute of Medicine (IOM) andNational Research Council (NRC), 2015). This critical feature of a high-quality curriculumrequires a concerted effort by developers to build in specific structures and content, including thedomain content, how children think and learn about that content, and how pedagogical strategiescan support children’s thinking and learning—a challenging task. This curriculum feature may beparticularly important in the STEM domains. Even when provided training in STEM education,preschool teachers have difficulty planning and implementing STEM activities, often becausethey lack content knowledge (Cevikbas et al., 2023; Leung, 2023; Yıldırım, 2020). Although many curricula provide instructional activities without supporting explanationsand other forms of professional support (Zangori & Forbes, 2014), the potential for professionaldevelopment is real and critical. Curricular interventions are a potentially stronger lever forchange than other approaches commonly adopted in the education system (Whitehurst, 2009).This advantage is important in content areas, especially those with which teachers are unfamiliar,such as the STEM domains (Clements & Wright, 2022; National Academies of Sciences, 2022;one report dedicates a chapter to content knowledge in math [National Research Council, 2009]).But it is also important even in familiar areas such as literacy and language (notably multilinguallearning), in which there have been many historical practices not in line with current research ora focus on equity (e.g., Duke & Martin, 2010, Chapters 1 and 7, this volume). A synthesis of a research project designed to describe what is and is not known abouteducative curricular materials reports implications relevant to developers of preschool curricula(Davis et al., 2017). Educative curricula have the following features. First, because teachers willadapt curricula, motivated by concerns about time and students’ competencies, educativematerials suggest adaptations of lessons that would take different amounts of time and meet a Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-52range of students needs while meeting goals (e.g., narratives describing alternatives that reducetime needed but providing opportunities for learning). Second, because different teachers willneed and use different educative features, especially regarding discourse and explanations(Broderick et al., 2022), curriculum designers develop a variety of such features (e.g., narratives;boxes on content and pedagogical knowledge, including generative questions and rubrics) andhelp teachers recognize any new practices. Languages and vocabulary that teachers cancomfortably comprehend are essential. Third, because teacher learning is situated in everydaywork, educative materials provide representations of practice, such as rubrics illustrating keyconcepts with student work examples or learning stories. Fourth, because content can be new,educative curricula provide multiple supports for teachers’ understanding of the content,especially the big ideas of the domain (e.g., Clements & Conference Working Group, 2004;National Academies of Sciences, 2022), through content storylines, visuals, and children’s owndefinitions of concepts. The structure and content of supports for teachers may lead to different types of learning(Beyer & Davis, 2015). Beyer and Davis found that lesson-specific narrative supports helpedpreservice teachers understand and use specific adaptations. Teachers considered those supportsto be useful, relevant, and motivating. In contrast, general expository supports helped teachersidentify and use principles of practice in analyzing lesson plans (Beyer & Davis, 2015). Bothtypes of supports may therefore be valuable; however, it is noteworthy that the lesson-specificsupports for adaptations are critical for effective formative assessment and inclusive education.Materials should help teachers attend to children’s level of thinking in creating small groups(Jiang et al., 2023). DEVELOPING RESEARCH-BASED AND EMPIRICALLY VALIDATED CURRICULA: A FRAMEWORK While challenging, developing a high-quality curriculum is an opportunity to attend toand help educators leverage the multilayered contexts and experiences that shape all children’sdevelopment and learning. Developing a high-quality early childhood curriculum entailsensuring that the curriculum is individually, culturally, and linguistically affirming; supportive;and interactive (National Academies of Sciences, 2020; Sanders et al., 2007; Steffe & Cobb,1988): Indeed, the development of high-quality research-based and empirically-validated earlychild curricula is so demanding of both expertise and effort that it is rare. Yet this is what theearly childhood field needs. Fortunately, research, grounded in rigorous, asset-based andcommunity-rooted principles, can provide knowledge and resources necessary to guide thisdevelopment, expansion, and sustainability. Although studies in this area exist, the field needs more consistent, comprehensive, andcogent research on specific curricula. The large Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research(PCER) initiative identified 10 curricula that showed no statistically significant impacts on anyof the student-level measures and 5 that showed significant impacts on some measures(Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research Consortium, 2008). Familiarity with these findingsis critical for developers of high-quality curricula, including the strengths and shortcomings ofthe design of the research. They also need to be familiar with other studies like these (usually ofa single curriculum) and the characteristics of each of these curriculum studies, including themajority that did not include equity concerns. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-53 Equity must be considered in all phases of research and development (Iruka et al., 2024).For example, what are the theoretical approaches and framing of the studies? do existing studiesinclude marginalized groups? Does any original research that is to be conducted do so?Convenience samples are usually inadequate and inappropriate. Similarly, do reviews andoriginal work include funds of knowledge from various cultures (Civil, 2002; Moll et al., 1992;Presmeg, 2007)? An example is a culturally-based math curriculum, the Design and Build Itmodule part of the Adapting Yup’ik Elders’ Knowledge project, increased 6th grade studentsmathematical understanding (Lipka & Adams, 2002). As another example, developing students’spatial abilities through art and design (e.g., tilings or tessellations), as well as puzzles (e.g.,tangrams) can be based in art found in most cultures (Danesi, 2009). Research is needed onsimilar approaches with preschool children. Such activities are engaging and can increasestudents’ mathematical self-efficacy (Casey et al., 2011; Cheng & Mix, 2012). Importantly,mathematics is a particularly challenging domain in which to incorporate funds of knowledgecompared to all other domains (González et al., 2001). Other issues are under researched and under developed, such as the relative lack ofSpanish versions of curricula and the absence of curricula and other resources in any otherlanguages (Park et al., 2017), which is a vital gap for multilingual learners’ development andachievement (see Chapter 7). Another such issue is the tension between creating locally specific,culturally relevant curricula and curricula that are adaptable but also can be widely disseminated.Curricula that are developed by and for members of a specific group may benefit from usingpublished research on and involving consultants with expertise in the various content domains.For curricula that are to be widely disseminated, the converse is true: literature and writingpartners or consultants from all communities intended as audience for the curricula should beinvolved in all phases of research and development. At the same time, there are many pressures and constraints on curriculum developers.Preschool standards, especially accumulated across states and organizations, can lead to anoverwhelming list of topics and outcomes (not all of which are consistent with research or thewisdom of expert practice, such as considerable time spent on the calendar or on bodies in outerspace). Curriculum developers must determine how to incorporate the standards withoutoverwhelming teachers and children. Another constraint derives from assessment systems,especially mandated ones, that can have the same weaknesses. These are sociopolitical issuesthat must be considered in curriculum development. Research indicates that curriculum research and development complement one anotherwhen designed and conducted together (Battista & Clements, 2000; Clements, 2007, 2008;Clements & Battista, 2000; Doabler et al., 2014; Lagemann, 1997; Lloyd et al., 2017; Sarama &Clements, 2008). Unfortunately, most publishers claim that their curricula are based on research.However, few document even these claims, and those that do tend to list theories or researchevidence generally without specific connections to the curriculum (Battista & Clements, 2000;Chard et al., 2008; Clements, 2007, 2008; Doabler et al., 2014; Lagemann, 1997; Lloyd et al.,2017; Sarama & Clements, 2008). Further, little distinction is made between that which isresearch-based and that which is empirically validated. On the positive side, more instances of the synthesis of research and curriculumdevelopment have recently become available. This literature includes the creation and evaluationof theoretical and practical frameworks for such work. Several such frameworks have beenproposed and used (e.g., Bannan-Ritland, 2003; Boerst et al., 2010; Burkhardt, 2006; Kimpston& Rogers, 1986; Lewis et al., 2006; The Design-Based Research Collective, 2003); most are Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-54general, and many deal with evaluation, not development, of curricula (e.g., Carnine et al., 1997;Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 1992; Heck et al., 2012; Lloyd et al., 2017; National ResearchCouncil, 2004; Schoenfeld, 2016; Senk & Thompson, 2003; Walker, 1992). One framework, the Curriculum Research Framework (CRF) (Clements, 2007; Clements& Sarama, 2013), has been used to develop research-based and empirically validated curricula inearly childhood education (e.g., Blanton et al., 2019; Bojorquea et al., 2018; Clements & Sarama,2007, 2008; Doabler et al., 2019; Foster et al., 2016; Gavin et al., 2013; Ghalichi & Roehrig,2017; Herrmann-Abell et al., 2016; Li et al., 2021; Sarama, Brenneman, et al., 2017; Superfine etal., 2010; Zucker et al., 2019) or cited as providing useful guidelines (e.g., Duschl et al., 2011;Hjalmarson & Baker, 2020; Hong et al., 2021; Kinzie et al., 2015; Moore et al., 2018; Munter etal., 2016; Solem et al., 2015). These proposal frameworks include goals and strategies. Because it constitutes one-waytranslations of research results, however, a framework limited to research-to-practice strategies isflawed in its presumptions, insensitive to changing goals in the content area, and unable tocontribute to a revision of the theory and knowledge on which it is built—the second critical goalof a scientific curriculum research program. Instead, a valid scientific curriculum developmentprogram should address two basic issues—effect and conditions—in the three domains ofpractice, policy, and theory (see Table 4-3).TABLE 4-3 Goals of Curriculum Research Practice Policy Theory Effects • Is the curriculum effective in • Are the • Why is the curriculum helping children achieve curriculum effective? (all) specific learning goals? Are goals • What were the goals culturally and important? theoretical bases? (1, 2, linguistically affirming? Are (1, 5, 10) 3) the intended and unintended • What is the • What cognitive changes consequences positive for effect size occurred, and what children? (What is the quality for processes were of the evidence [construct and students? responsible? That is, internal validity]?) (6-10) * (9, 10) what specific • Is there credible • What components and features documentation of both a priori effects does (e.g., instructional research and research it have on procedures, materials) performed on the curriculum, teachers? account for its impact indicating the efficacy of the (10) and why? (4, 6, 7) approach as compared with alternative approaches? (all) Conditions • When and Where?—Under • What are • Why do certain sets of what conditions is the the support conditions decrease or curriculum effective? (Do requirement increase the curriculum’s findings generalize to s (7) for effectiveness? (6-10) communities/groups of various l. How do specific interest [external validity]? (8, contexts? strategies produce 10) What are Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-55 the costs previously unattained and results and why? (6-10) available resources?( 8-10)SOURCE: Adapted from Clements, 2007, p. 39. The Curriculum Research Framework is intended to guide the process by including threebroad categories of research and development work, within which there are 10 phases. The threecategories involve (1) reviewing existing research (A Priori Foundations), (2) building models ofchildren's thinking and learning in a domain (Learning Trajectories), and (3) appraising theeffectiveness and general worth of the result (Evaluation: Formative [leading to revisions] andSummative [to determine the effects of the completed curriculum]. Specific phases describinghow research and curriculum development are integrated to their mutual benefit are provided inTable 4-4 (for full details, see Clements, 2007; Clements & Sarama, 2013). Note that all phasesinclude scientific research, but only the last two focus on quantitative data; all 10 includequalitative data. This framework was intended for curriculum developer/researchers but can alsoguide the creation of criteria for any evaluation.TABLE 4-4 Categories and Phases of the Curriculum Research Framework Categories Questions Asked Phases Research Reviews: A What is already Content analyses of standards, organizations, Priori Foundations. In known that can be and domain experts are conducted to gather variants of the research- applied to the knowledge concerning the specific subject to-practice model, anticipated matter content, including the role it would play extant research is curriculum? How in children’s learning (phase 1); reviews of reviewed and can the needs of all relevant curricular issues for preschool are implications for the groups and all garnered from fields such as educational curriculum drawn. individuals be psychology, education, and early childhood addressed? (phase 2); and similar review of pedagogy are conducted, including the effectiveness of certain types of educational structures, experiences, and activities (phase 3). Equity concerns are addressed in these and all other phases (Meaney, 2018). Learning Trajectories. How might the In phase 4, the nature and content of all Curriculum curriculum be components of the curriculum are tailored components are created constructed to be based on what is known about children’s and sequenced in consistent with thinking and learning in all domains, as well as accordance with what is known what is known about educational environments empirically based about children’s and pedagogical methods. This includes models of children’s thinking and assessments, which must equitably measure thinking and learning. learning? the thinking and learning of all children, for Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-56 example, children from linguistically marginalized communities. That is, all assessments—whether curriculum-embedded assessments built into a curriculum or separate measures accompanying the curriculum—must document all forms of validity, and especially consequential validity (Dong & Clements, 2023; Dong et al., 2023; Messick, 1989). Adaptations for children with disabilities and consideration of cultural responsiveness, multilingual learners, and other equity issues are foundational for all components. This research is applied and revised (or, not infrequently, created anew) dynamically, simultaneously with the development of instructional tasks, using grounded theory methods, clinical interviews, teaching experiments, and design experiments.Evaluation: Formative How can the Phase 5 focuses on marketability, usingand Summative. curriculum be strategies such as gathering information aboutIn these phases, appropriate, educators and families from all societalempirical evidence is accessible, easy to groups, representation of which is carefullycollected with which to use, and effective designed. More important, Phase 5 focuses onevaluate the for all adults and full community collaboration, involving thecurriculum, realized in children? community in collaboratively creating thesome form. The goal is curriculum (for all phases).to evaluate the appeal, Is the curriculum Formative phases 6 to 8 are aimed atusability, and usable by, and understanding the meaning that children andeffectiveness of an effective with, teachers give to the curriculum componentsinstantiation of the diverse groups of and activities in progressively expanding,curriculum. children and diverse social contexts so as to improve the teachers? curriculum. For example, the usability and effectiveness of specific components and characteristics of the curriculum are evaluated as implemented by a teacher who is familiar with the materials. The evaluation begins with implementation with individuals or small groups (phase 6), then continues with whole classes (phase 7), and finally focuses on implementation by a diverse group of teachers (phase 8). The curriculum is frequently, in cycles, altered based on empirical results, with the focus expanding to include aspects of Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-57 support for teachers. Methods include interpretive work using a mix of model testing and model generation strategies, including design experiments and microgenetic, microethnographic, and phenomenological approaches (phase 6), classroom-based teaching experiments and ethnographic participant observation (phase 7); and these plus content analyses (phase 8). The curriculum is altered based on empirical results, with the focus expanding to include aspects of support for teachers. What is the Summative phases 9 and 10 are intended to effectiveness of the assess whether the goals of the curriculum curriculum in have been met. (Note: that these evaluations diverse, realistic can lead to curricular revisions, for example, contexts? between editions).Source: adapted from Clements, 2007 CURRICULA BEYOND PRESCHOOL Although this committee was charged only with addressing high-quality preschoolcurriculum, we would be remiss to ignore one of the most important determinants of the long-range benefits of such a curriculum: without high-quality curricula in later grades, the benefits ofpreschool are often lost (Clements et al., 2023; Clements et al., 2013; Kang et al., 2019;McCormick et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2023). With follow-through, children’s learning anddevelopment are more likely to continue on a positive trajectory (Ansari & Pianta, 2018; but seecautions in Bailey et al., 2019; Carr, 2021; Carr et al., 2019; Jenkins et al., 2018; Pearman II etal., 2019; Sarama & Clements, 2015b; Unterman & Weiland, 2019). Developing consistency incurricula across early childhood programs, including both horizontal and vertical alignment, is akey consideration for policy makers (Little & Gragson, 2023). In summary, traditional research is conservative; it studies “what is” rather than “whatcould be.” When research is an integral component of the design process, when it helps uncoverand invent models of children's thinking and builds these into a creative product, it moves to thevanguard in innovation and reform in education. Early childhood education should not be an“implication” tagged on to the end of studies from developmental and cognitive psychology.Educational research and curriculum research and development should be interwoven with otherdomains of study for progress in the field and for the benefit of all children (cf. Clements &Sarama, 2015a, p. 251). Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-58 CONCLUSION The development and implementation of high-quality, equitable curriculum is a highlycreative, complex enterprise that requires input and support across family, community, andeducational contexts and diverse experts and expertise that does not rely solely on Eurocentricepistemology and models of teaching approaches, learning, and outcomes. • High-quality curricula are coherent, equitable, culturally relevant, and linguistically affirming, and have the flexibility to be adapted. To support their effectiveness, such curricula would also be research based and empirically validated as part of their development. • Theoretical purity is less important for developing and evaluating high-quality curricula than considering all relevant theories and empirical work. Similarly, research designs and methods are suited for specific investigations and questions, but a complete research and development program requires multiple methodologies. • The development and evaluation of high-quality curricula are resource intensive. Although progressing through multiple stages is demanding and producing satisfactory evaluation data is costly, given the potential financial and human costs of inadequate curricula, it is actually impractical to avoid careful, long-range development and evaluation of high-quality curricula. • Curriculum has a significant effect on teaching and learning. Curricula can be educative, supporting teachers’ acquisition of content knowledge and implementation of new approaches that support all children’s thinking and learning. As noted in this and previous chapters, a key challenge to advancing a new vision forpreschool curriculum, particularly for children facing the greatest educational disparities, is thedevelopment of policy levers for curriculum choice and implementation that are closely alignedwith empirical evidence. The committee recognizes that these considerations impose significantchallenges for curriculum developers who work across disciplinary areas; however, it is essentialfor high-quality, equitable preschool curricula to be developed to meet the needs of the diversepopulation of preschool children and be able to suit the unique strengths and needs of everychild. REFERENCESAdair, J. K. (2014). Agency and expanding capabilities in early grade classrooms: What it could mean for young children. Harvard Educational Review, 84(2), 217–241.Adair, J. K. (under review). The related impact of agency and racism on young children’s development: Evidence from three large-scale, multi-sited studies. Child Development.Adair, J. K., & Colgrove, K. S. (2021). Segregation by experience: Agency, learning, and racism in the early grades. University of Chicago Press.Adair, J. K., Colgrove, K. S.-S., & Mcmanus, M. E. (2017). How the word gap argument negatively impacts young children of Latinx immigrants’ conceptualizations of learning. Harvard Educational Review, 87(3), 309-334.Adukia, A., Eble, A., Harrison, E., Runesha, H. B., & Szasz, T. (2021). What we teach about race and gender: Representation in images and text of children’s. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-59Agodini, R., Harris, B., Thomas, M., Murphy, R., Gallagher, L., & Pendleton, A. (2010). Achievement effects of four early elementary school math curricula: Findings for first and second graders. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.Amukune, S., & Józsa, K. n. (2023). Approaches to learning in elementary classrooms: Contribution of mastery motivation and executive functions on academic achievement. International Journal of Instruction, 16(2), 389-412.Ansari, A., & Pianta, R. C. (2018). The role of elementary school quality in the persistence of preschool effects. Children and Youth Services Review, 86, 120-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.01.025Armstrong, A. L. (2021). The representation of social groups in U.S. education materials and why it matters: A research overview. New America. https://www.newamerica.org/education- policy/reports/the-representation-of-social-groups-in-u-s-educational-materials-and-why-it-matter/Ascenzi-Moreno, L., & Seltzer, K. (2021). Always at the Bottom: Ideologies in Assessment of Emergent Bilinguals. Journal of Literacy Research, 53(4), 468-490. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296x211052255Ascenzi-Moreno, L., & Seltzer, K. (2021). Always at the Bottom: Ideologies in Assessment of Emergent Bilinguals. Journal of Literacy Research, 53(4), 468-490. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296x211052255Aydogan, C., Plummer, C., Kang, S. J., Bilbrey, C., Farran, D. C., & Lipsey, M. W. (2005, June 5-8). An investigation of prekindergarten curricula: Influences on classroom characteristics and child engagement. Paper presented at the NAEYC, Washington, DC.Ayer, D. (2016). Native Montessori project revived. Montessori Public.Bailey, D. H., Jenkins, J. M., & Alvarez-Vargas, D. (2019). Complementarities between early educational intervention and later educational quality? A systematic review of the sustaining environments hypothesis (EdWorkingPaper: 19-99). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. http://www.edworkingpapers.com/ai19-99Bailey, D., Holly, J., & West, R. (2023). Proposing African-Centered Education in STEM for African (American) STEM Learners. Journal of Black Excellence in Engineering, Science, & Technology, 1, 1–20.Ball, D. L., & Cohen, D. K. (1996). Reform by the book: What is—or might be—the role of curriculum materials in teacher learning and instructional reform? Educational Researcher, 25(9), 6–8; 14.Banks, J. A. (1993). The Canon Debate, Knowledge Construction, and Multicultural Education. Educational Researcher, 22(5), 4-14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X022005004Banks, J. A. (1995). Multicultural Education and Curriculum Transformation. The Journal of Negro Education, 64(4), 390–400. https://doi.org/10.2307/2967262Bannan-Ritland, B. (2003). The role of design in research: The integrative learning design framework. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 21–24.Banse, H. W., Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Day-Hess, C. A., & Joswick, C. (2021). Intentional teaching moments: Supporting executive function development and early mathematics through a geometry activity. Young Children, 76(3), 75-82.Bardsley, M. E. (2006). Pre-kindergarten teachers’ use and understanding of hypothetical learning trajectories in mathematics education. [Doctoral dissertation, SUNY at Buffalo]. Proquest.Barnett, W. S., Jung, K., Yarosz, D. J., Thomas, J., Hornbeck, A., Stechuk, R., & Burns, S. (2008). Educational effects of the Tools of the Mind curriculum: A randomized trial. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(3), 299–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2008.03.001Barnett, W. S., Yarosz, D. J., Thomas, J., Jung, K., & Blanco, D. (2007). Two-way and monolingual English immersion in preschool education: An experimental comparison. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22(3), 277–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.03.003 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-60Baron, A., Evangelou, M., Malmberg, L.-E., Melendez-Torres, G. J., & International. (2017). The Tools of the Mind curriculum for improving self-regulation in early childhood: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2017.10Baroody, A. J., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2019). Teaching and learning mathematics in early childhood programs. In C. P. Brown, M. B. McMullen, & N. File (Eds.), The Wiley Handbook of Early Childhood Care and Education (1st ed., pp. 329–353). Wiley Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119148104Baroody, A. J., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2022). Lessons learned from 10 experiments that tested the efficacy and assumptions of hypothetical learning trajectories. Education Sciences, 12, 195. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12030195Baroody, A. J., Eiland, M. D., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (under review). Does a learning trajectory facilitate the learning of early cardinal-number concepts?Baroody, A. J., Purpura, D. J., Eiland, M. D., & Reid, E. E. (2014). Fostering first graders’ fluency with basic subtraction and larger addition combinations via computer-assisted instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 32(2), 159–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.2014.887084Baroody, A. J., Yilmaz, N., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2021). Evaluating a basic assumption of learning trajectories: The case of early patterning learning. Journal of Mathematics Education 13(2), 8-32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-019-01122-zBattista, M. T., & Clements, D. H. (2000). Mathematics curriculum development as a scientific endeavor. In A. E. Kelly & R. A. Lesh (Eds.), Handbook of research design in mathematics and science education (pp. 737–760). Erlbaum.Beleslin, T. P. e., Lepičnik-Vodopivec, J., Partalo, S., & Åindić, A. (2022). Where does mathematics education start? connecting the preschool curriculum and the home environment. Наша школа, 6(1), 119–140. https://doi.org/10.7251/NSK2201119BBernal, R., Giannola, M., & Nores, M. (2022). The effects of a project and play-based early education program on medium term developmental trajectories of young children in a low-income setting. SSRN, 4191995.Beyer, C. J., & Davis, E. A. (2015). Using educative curriculum materials to support preservice elementary teachers’ curricular planning: A comparison between two different forms of support. Curriculum Inquiry, 39(5), 679-703. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-873X.2009.00464.xBierman, K. L., Domitrovich, C. E., Nix, R. L., Gest, S. D., Welsh, J. A., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C. B., Nelson, K. E., & Gill, S. (2008). Promoting academic and social-emotional school readiness: The Head Start REDI Program. Child Development, 79(6), 1802–1817. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 8624.2008.01227.xBishop, R. S. (1990). Mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors. Perspectives: . Choosing and Using Books for the Classroom, 6(3).Björklund, C., & Barendregt, W. (2016). Teachers’ pedagogical mathematical awareness in diverse child- age-groups. Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education, 21(4), 115–133. http://ncm.gu.se/nomadBlair, C. B., & Raver, C. C. (2014). Closing the achievement gap through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function: Results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten. PLoS One, 9(11), e112393. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112393Blanton, M., Stroud, R., Stephens, A., Gardiner, A. M., Stylianou, D. A., Knuth, E., Isler-Baykal, I., & Strachota, S. (2019). Does early algebra matter? The effectiveness of an early algebra intervention in grades 3 to 5. American Educational Research Journal, 56(5), 1930-1972. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219832301Blewitt, C., O’Connor, A., Morris, H., Mousa, A., Bergmeier, H. et al., (2020). Do curriculum-based social and emotional learning programs in early childhood education and care strengthen teacher outcomes? A systematic literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 1049. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-61Blöte, A. W., van der Burg, E., & Klein, A. S. (2001). Students' flexibility in solving two-digit addition and subtraction problems: Instruction effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 627–638.Boerst, T., Lambdin, D. V., Confrey, J., White, D., Heck, D., Baltzley, P. C., Knuth, E., & Quander, J. R. (2010). Strengthening research by designing for coherence and connections to practice. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 41(3), 216–235.Bojorquea, G., Torbeyns, J., Van Hoof , J., Van Nijlen, D., & Verschaffel, L. (2018). Effectiveness of the Building Blocks program for enhancing Ecuadorian kindergartners’ numerical competencies. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 44(3), 231–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.12.009Boutte, G. S., Wynter-Hoyte, K., & Bryan, N. (2024). Revoluntionary Love for Early Childhood Classrooms: Nurturing the Brilliance of Young Black Children. ScholasticBredekamp, S., & Joseph, G. E. (2024). Effective practices in early childhood education: Building a foundation (5th ed.). Pearson Education.Bredekamp, S., & Willer, B. (2022). Intentional teaching: Complex decision making and the core considerations. In H. Bohart & R. Procopio (Eds.), Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8 (4th ed., pp. 5-23). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.Broderick, J. T., & Hong, S. B. (2020). From children’s interests to children’s thinking: Using a cycle of inquiry to plan curriculum. National Association for the Education of Young Children.Broderick, J. T., Sareh, N., & Aggrey, P. M.-B. (2022). Teaching preschool teachers to converse productively with children: A single case design. Early Childhood Education Journal, 51(1), 165-178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01284-0Brooks, W., & Browne, S. (2012). Towards a culturally situated reader responsive theory. Children’s Literature in Education, 43(1), 74-85.Brosterman, N. (1997). Inventing kindergarten. Harry N. Abrams.Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1996). Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments: On procedures, principles, and systems. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Innovations in learning: New environments for education (pp. 289–325). Erlbaum.Bruner, J. S. (1985). Models of the learner. Educational Researcher, 14(6), 5–8.Burbanks IV, S. M., Shockley, K. G., & LeNiles, K. (2020). The need for African centered education in STEM programs for Black youth. Journal of African American Males in Education (JAAME), 11(2), 12-24.Burchinal, M. R., Bierman, K., Gonzalez, J., McClelland, M. M., Nelson, K., Pentimonti, J., Purpura, D. J., Sachs, J., Sarama, J., Schlesinger-Devlin, E., & Washington, J. (2022). Preparing young children for school (WWC 2022009). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://whatworks.ed.gov/Burkhardt, H. (2006). From design research to large-scale impact: Engineering research in education. In J. V. d. Akker, K. P. E. Gravemeijer, S. McKenney, & N. Nieveen (Eds.), Educational design research. London: Routledge (pp. 133–162). Routledge.Burkhardt, H., Fraser, R., & Ridgway, J. (1989). The dynamics of curriculum change. In J. Malone, H. Burkhardt, & C. Keitel (Eds.), The Mathematics Curriculum: Towards the Year 2000. Science and Mathematics Education Centre, Curtin University.Burnett, C. (2010). Technology and literacy in early childhood educational settings: A review of research. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 10(3), 247–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798410372154Burstein, K., Zamudio, I., Otto, C., Rodgers, J., Yellowman, I., Clark, G., Guy, M., Blanchard, J., & J., C. (2014). Advancing early literacy achievement: A longitudinal study of an American Indian early childhood education program. http://swifamilies.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Advancing-Early- Literacy-Achievement.pdf.Bustamante, A. S., Greenfield, D., & Nayfeld, I. (2018). Early childhood science and engineering: Engaging platforms for fostering domain-general learning skills. Education Sciences, 8(3), 144. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8030144 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-62Byers, A. I., Cottone, E. A., & Cameron, C. E. (2018). From design copying to mathematics in the early childhood classroom. YC Young Children, 73(1), 80–85.Cabell, S. Q., Neuman, S. B., & Terry, N. P. (Eds.). (2023). Handbook on the science of early literacy. Guilford. New York, NY: Guilford Press.California Department of Education. (2011). California Preschool Curriculum Framework, Volume 2. cde.ca.gov.Callaghan, M. N., & Reich, S. M. (2018). Are educational preschool apps designed to teach? An analysis of the app market. Learning, Media and Technology, 43(3), 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2018.1498355Campbell, C., Speldewinde, C., Howitt, C., & MacDonald, A. (2018). STEM practice in the early years. Creative Education, 9(01), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2018.91002Carnine, D. W., Jitendra, A. K., & Silbert, J. (1997). A descriptive analysis of mathematics curricular materials from a pedagogical perspective: A case study of fractions. Remedial and Special Education, 18(2), 66–81.Carr, R. C. (2021). The benefits of early childhood education can persist in the long run. Hunt Institute and Duke University. https://hunt-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/HI-Duke-Brief- Carr_v2.pdfCarr, R. C., Mokrova, I. L., Vernon-Feagans, L., & Burchinal, M. R. (2019). Cumulative classroom quality during pre-kindergarten and kindergarten and children's language, literacy, and mathematics skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47, 218–228.Casey, B. M., Dearing, E., Vasilyeva, M., Ganley, C. M., & Tine, M. (2011). Spatial and numerical predictors of measurement performance: The moderating effects of community income and gender. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(2), 296–311. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022516Castagno, A. E., & Brayboy, B. M. (2008). Culturally responsive schooling for indigenous youth: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 78, 941–993.CCSSO/NGA (Council of Chief State School Officers and National Governors Association). (2010). Common core state standards. http://corestandards.org/Cevikbas, M., König, J., & Rothland, M. (2023). Empirical research on teacher competence in mathematics lesson planning: recent developments. ZDM – Mathematics Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-023-01487-2Champion, T. B., Hyter, Y. D., McCabe, A., & Bland-Stewart, L. M. (2003). “A matter of vocabulary” performances of low-income African American Head Start children on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—III. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 24(3), 121-127.Chard, D. J., Baker, S. K., Clarke, B., Jungjohann, K., Davis, K., & Smolkowski, K. (2008). Preventing early mathematics difficulties: The feasibility of a rigorous kindergarten mathematics curriculum. Learning Disability Quarterly, 31, 11–20.Chaudry, A., Morrissey, T., Weiland, C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2017). Cradle to kindergarten: A new plan to combat inequality. Russell Sage.Cheng, Y.-L., & Mix, K. S. (2012). Spatial training improves children’s mathematics ability. Journal of Cognition and Development, 15(1), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2012.725186Chernyak, N., Harris, P. L., & Cordes, S. (2022). A counting intervention promotes fair sharing in preschoolers. Child Development, 93(5).Christie, J., Roskos, K., Vukelich, C., & Han, M. (2003). The effects of a well-designed literacy program on young children’s language and literacy development. In F. Lamb-Parker, J. Hagen, R. Robinson, & H. Rhee (Eds.). The first eight years. Pathways to the future: Implications for research, policy, and practice. Proceedings of the Head Start National Research Conference (pp. 447-448. New York: Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia Univesity.Civil, M. (2002). Culture and mathematics: A community approach. Journal of Intercultural studies, 23(2), 133–148.Clark, R. E., Kirschner, P. A., & Sweller, J. (2012). Putting students on the path to learning: The case for fully guided instruction. American Educator, 36(1), 6–11. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-63Clements, D. H. (1997). (Mis?)Constructing constructivism. Teaching Children Mathematics, 4(4), 198– 200.Clements, D. H. (2007). Curriculum research: Toward a framework for ‘research-based curricula. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 38(1), 35–70. https://doi.org/10.2307/30034927Clements, D. H. (2008). Linking research and curriculum development. In L. D. English (Ed.), Handbook of International Research in Mathematics Education (Second ed., pp. 589–625). Taylor & Francis.Clements, D. H., & Battista, M. T. (2000). Designing effective software. In A. E. Kelly & R. A. Lesh (Eds.), Handbook of research design in mathematics and science education (pp. 761–776). Erlbaum.Clements, D. H., & Conference Working Group. (2004). Part one: Major themes and recommendations. In D. H. Clements, J. Sarama, & A.-M. DiBiase (Eds.), Engaging young children in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics education (pp. 1–72). Erlbaum.Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2002a). Mathematics curricula in early childhood. Teaching Children Mathematics, 9(3), 163–166.Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2002b). Teaching with computers in early childhood education: Strategies and professional development. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 23(3), 215–226.Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2003). Strip mining for gold: Research and policy in educational technology—A response to “Fool’s Gold”. Educational Technology Review, 11(1), 7–69. www.editlib.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Reader.ViewAbstract&paper_id=17793Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2007). Effects of a preschool mathematics curriculum: Summative research on the Building Blocks project. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 38(2), 136– 163. https://doi.org/10.2307/748360Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2008). Experimental evaluation of the effects of a research-based preschool mathematics curriculum. American Educational Research Journal, 45(2), 443–494. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312908Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2012). Learning and teaching early and elementary mathematics. In J. S. Carlson & J. R. Levine (Eds.), Instructional strategies for improving student learning: Focus on early mathematics and reading (Vol. 3 of Psychological perspectives on contemporary educational issues, pp. 107–162). Information Age Publishing.Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2013). Rethinking early mathematics: What is research-based curriculum for young children? In L. D. English & J. T. Mulligan (Eds.), Reconceptualizing early mathematics learning (pp. 121–147). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6440-8_7Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2014a). Learning trajectories: Foundations for effective, research-based education. In A. P. Maloney, J. Confrey, & K. H. Nguyen (Eds.), Learning over time: Learning trajectories in mathematics education (pp. 1–30). Information Age Publishing.Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2014b, March 3). Play, mathematics, and false dichotomies. Preschool matters…today! https://nieer.wordpress.com/2014/03/03/play-mathematics-and-false-dichotomiesClements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2015a). Discussion from a mathematics education perspective. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 17(2-3), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/10986065.2015.1016826Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2015b). Learning executive function and early mathematics. In C. Kurose & N. Albert (Eds.), Mathematical instruction for perseverance collected papers (pp. 20). Spencer Foundation. http://hub.mspnet.org/index.cfm/28129Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2015c). Methods for developing scientific education: Research-based development of practices, pedagogies, programs, and policies. In O. N. Saracho (ed.), Handbook of research methods in early childhood education (pp. 717-751). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2017/2023). Learning and teaching with learning trajectories ([LT]2). Marsico Institute, Morgridge College of Education, University of Denver. www.learningtrajectories.orgClements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2021). Learning and teaching early math: The learning trajectories approach (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003083528 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-64Clements, D. H., & Wright, T. S. (2022). Teaching content in early childhood education. In H. Bohart & R. Procopio (Eds.), Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8 (4th ed., pp. 63-80). National Association for the Education of Young Children.Clements, D. H., Fuson, K. C., & Sarama, J. (2019). Critiques of the Common Core in early math: A research-based response. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 50(1), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.50.1.0011Clements, D. H., Lizcano, R., & Sarama, J. (2023a). Research and pedagogies for early math. Education Sciences, 13(8), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13080839Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & Germeroth, C. (2016). Learning executive function and early mathematics: Directions of causal relations. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36(3), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.009Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Baroody, A. J., & Joswick, C. (2020). Efficacy of a learning trajectory approach compared to a teach-to-target approach for addition and subtraction. ZDM Mathematics Education, 52(4), 637–648. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-019-01122-zClements, D. H., Sarama, J., Baroody, A. J., Joswick, C., & Wolfe, C. B. (2019). Evaluating the efficacy of a learning trajectory for early shape composition. American Educational Research Journal, 56(6), 2509–2530. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219842788Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Baroody, A. J., Kutaka, T. S., Chernyavskiy, P., Joswick, C., Cong, M., & Joseph, E. (2021). Comparing the efficacy of early arithmetic instruction based on a learning trajectory and teaching-to-a-target. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(7), 1323–1337. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1037/edu0000633Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Layzer, C., & Unlu, F. (2023). Implementation of a scale-up model in early childhood: Long-term impacts on mathematics achievement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 54(1), 64-88. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc-2020-0245Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Layzer, C., Unlu, F., & Fesler, L. (2020). Effects on mathematics and executive function of a mathematics and play intervention versus mathematics alone. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 51(3), 301-333. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresemtheduc-2019-0069Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Spitler, M. E., Lange, A. A., & Wolfe, C. B. (2011). Mathematics learned by young children in an intervention based on learning trajectories: A large-scale cluster randomized trial. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 42(2), 127–166. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.42.2.0127Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Wolfe, C. B., & Spitler, M. E. (2013). Longitudinal evaluation of a scale-up model for teaching mathematics with trajectories and technologies: Persistence of effects in the third year. American Educational Research Journal, 50(4), 812 – 850. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831212469270Clements, D. H., Vinh, M., Lim, C.-I., & Sarama, J. (2021). STEM for inclusive excellence and equity. Early Education and Development, 32(1), 148-171. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1755776Cobb, P. (2000). Constructivism in social context. In L. P. Steffe & P. W. Thompson (Eds.), Radical constructivism in action: Building on the pioneering work of Ernst von Glasersfeld (pp. 152–178). London: RoutledgeFalmer.Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.Cooperative Children's Book Center. (2024). Books by and/or about Black, Indigenous and People of Color (All Years). https://ccbc.education.wisc.edu/literature-resources/ccbc-diversity-statistics/books- by-about-poc-fnn/Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused. Harvard University Press.Culcasure, B., Fleming, D.J., Riga, G., & Sprogis, A. (2018). An evaluation of Montessori education in South Carolina public schools. The Riley Institute and Furman University.Curenton, S. M., & Franco, X. (2022). CRABAR: Critical Reflective Review of Curriculum. Center on the Ecology of Early Development at Boston University. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-65Curenton, S. M., Franco-Jenkins, X., Nazaire, O. R., Huang, C., & Miller, E. K. (2023). Literacy for Social Justice, Equity Diversity, and Inclusion: Curriculum Audit & Book Review Audit. Boston, MA: Center on the Ecology of Early Development.Curenton, S. M., Iruka, I., & Durden, T. (2017). Introduction. In S. M. Curenton, I. Iruka, & T. Durden (Eds.), African American children in early childhood education: Making the case for policy investments in families, schools, and communities advances in race and ethnicity in education (Vol. 5, pp. 3-13). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2051- 231720170000005001Dahlen, S. (2019). Picture this: Diversity in children’s books [Infographic]. https://readingspark.wordpress.com/2019/06/19/picture-this-diversityin-childrens-books-2018- infographic/Danesi, M. (2009, April 24). Puzzles and the brain. Retrieved October 11, 2018, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/brain-workout/200904/puzzles-and-the-brainDarling-Hammond, L., & Snyder, J. (1992). Curriculum studies and the traditions of inquiry: The scientific tradition. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 41–78). Macmillan.Davis, E. A., Palincsar, A. S., Smith, P. S., Arias, A. M., & Kademian, S. M. (2017). Educative curriculum materials: Uptake, impact, and implications for research and design. Educational Researcher, 46(6), 293-304. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x17727502de Jong, T., Lazonder, A. W., Chinn, C. A., Fischer, F., Gobert, J., Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Koedinger, K. R., Krajcik, J. S., Kyza, E. A., Linn, M. C., Pedaste, M., Scheiter, K., & Zacharia, Z. C. (2023). Let's talk evidence – The case for combining inquiry-based and direct instruction. Educational Research Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100536Deaño, M., Alfonso, S., Diniz, A. M., Iglesias-Sarmiento, V., & Das, J. P. (2023). Math Modules Training improves math achievement & associated cognitive processing. Psychology, 14(6), 1053- 1069. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2023.146057Debs, M. C., & Brown, K.E. (2017). Students of color and public Montessori schools: A review of the literature. Journal of Montessori Research, 3(1), Published online.DeCaro, M. S., & Rittle-Johnson, B. (2012). Exploring mathematics problems prepares children to learn from instruction. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113(4), 552–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.009Deflorio, L., Klein, A., Starkey, P., Swank, P. R., Taylor, H. B., Halliday, S. E., Beliakoff, A., & Mulcahy, C. (2019). A study of the developing relations between self-regulation and mathematical knowledge in the context of an early math intervention. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 33– 48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.06.008Delpit, L. (1988). The silenced dialogue: Power and pedagogy in educating other people's children. Harvard Educational Review, 58(3), 280–298.Delpit, L. (2006). Lessons from teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 220-231.Delpit, L. (2013). "Multiplication is for white people": Raising expectations for other people's children. New York, NY: The New Press.Demmert, W. G., Jr., & Towner, J. C. (2003). A review of the research literature on the influences of culturally based education on the academic performance of Native American students. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED474128&site=ehost- live&scope=siteDerman-Sparks, L., & A.B.C. Task Force. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum: Tools for empowering young children. National Association for the Education of Young Children.Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. O. (2020). Anti-bias education for young children and ourselves (2nd rev ed.). National Association for the Education of Young Children.DeVries, R., Zan, B., Hildebrandt, C., Edmiaston, R., & Sales, C. (2002). Developing constructivist early childhood curriculum: Practical principles and activities. Williston, VT: Teachers College. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-66Dewey, J. (1938/1997). Experience and education. Simon & Schuster.Diamond, K. E., Justice, L. M., Siegler, R. S., & Snyder, P. A. (2013). Synthesis of IES research on early intervention and early childhood education (NCSER 2013-3001). National Center for Special Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. http://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pubs/20133001/pdf/20133001.pdfDoabler, C. T., Clarke, B., Fien, H., Baker, S. K., Kosty, D. B., & Cary, M. S. (2014). The science behind curriculum development and evaluation: Taking a design science approach in the production of a tier 2 mathematics curriculum. Learning Disability Quarterly, 38(2), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948713520555Doabler, C. T., Clarke, B., Firestone, A. R., Turtura, J. E., Jungjohann, K. J., Brafford, T. L., Sutherland, M., Nelson, N. J., & Fien, H. (2019). Applying the Curriculum Research Framework in the design and development of a technology-based tier 2 mathematics intervention [Article]. Journal of Special Education Technology, 34(3), 176-189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643418812051Dockett, S., & Perry, B. (2010). What makes mathematics play? In L. Sparrow, B. Kissane, & C. Hurst (Eds.), MERGA 33: Shaping the future of mathematics education (pp. 715-718). Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia.Domínguez, X., & Goldstein, M. (2020). Next generation preschool science: Findings from design-based research to inform iterative development of an innovative curricular pro-gram and a field study to examine implementation and efficacy. Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness.Domitrovich, C. E., Moore, J. E., & Greenberg, M. T. (2012). Maximizing the effectiveness of social- emotional interventions for young children through high-quality implementation of evidence-based interventions. In B. Kelly & D. F. Perkins (Eds.), Handbook of implementation science for psychology in education (pp. 207–229). Cambridge University Press.Dong, X., Burke, M. D., Ramirez, G., Xu, Z., & Bowman-Perrott, L. (2023). A meta-analysis of social skills interventions for preschoolers with or at risk of early emotional and behavioral problems. Behavioral Sciences, 13(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13110940Dong, Y., and Clements, D. H. (2023). Consequential validity of early childhood assessments, in Handbook of research methods in early childhood education (Information Age 2023).Dong, Y., Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Dumas, D. G., Banse, H. W., & Day-Hess, C. A. (2021). Mathematics and executive function competencies in the context of interventions: A quantile regression analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 90(2), 297-318. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2020.1777070Dong, Y., Dumas, D. G., Clements, D. H., Day-Hess, C. A., & Sarama, J. (2023). Evaluating the consequential validity of the Research-Based Early Mathematics Assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 41(5), 575-582. https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829231165812Dorr, M. (2017). The effectiveness of project-based learning using digital storytelling technology on improving second-grade students' performance of science standards [Master's Thesis, University of Central Florida]. Orlando, Florida. http://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6664&context=etdDrake, C., Land, T. J., & Tyminski, A. M. (2014). Using educative curriculum materials to support the development of prospective teachers’ knowledge. Educational Researcher, 43(3), 154–162. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X14528039Dubosarsky, M., Murphy, B., Roehrig, G., Frost, L. C., Jones, J., Carlson, S. P., Londo, N., Melchert, C. J. B., Gettel, C., & Bement, J. (2011). Incorporating cultural themes to promote preschoolers' critical thinking in American Indian Head Start classrooms. YC: Young Children, 66(5), 20–29. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=66743312&site=ehost- live&scope=siteDuke, N. K. (2015). Project based learning in Michigan. Michigan Reading Journal, 48(1).Duke, N. K. (2019). Making the most of informational text. https://www.naeyc.org/resources/blog/making-most-informational-textDuke, N. K., & Martin, N. M. (2010). 10 things every literacy educator should know about research. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-67Duke, N. K., Halvorsen, A.-L., & Strachan, S. (2016). Project-based learning: Not just for STEM anymore. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(1), 15–19.Dumas, D. G., McNeish, D., Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2019). Preschool mathematics intervention can significantly improve student learning trajectories through elementary school. AERA Open, 5(4), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419879446Dunlap, G., Strain, P. S., Fox, L., Carta, J. J., Conroy, M., Smith, B. J., Less, K., Hemmeter, M. L., Timm, M. A., McCart, A. B., Sailor, W., Markey, U., Markey, D. J., Lardieri, S., & Sowell, C. (2006). Prevention and intervention with young children's challenging behavior: Perspectives regarding current knowledge. Behavioral Disorders, 32, 29–45.Durán, L. K., Roseth, C. J., & Hoffman, P. (2010). An experimental study comparing English-only and Transitional Bilingual Education on Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ early literacy development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(2), 207-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.10.002Durden, T., & Curenton, S. M. (2018). Pathways to excellence – what we know works for nurturing Black children’s success. In I. U. Iruka, S. M. Curenton, & T. R. Durden (Eds.), African American Children in Early Childhood Education: Making the case for policy investments in families, schools, and communities. Volume 5 (pp. 35-55). United Kingdom: Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2051-231720170000005003Duschl, R., Maeng, S., & Sezen, A. (2011). Learning progressions and teaching sequences: A review and analysis. Studies in Science Education, 47(2), 123-182. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2011.604476Early, D. M., Iruka, I. U., Ritchie, S., Barbarin, O. A., Winn, D.-M. C., Crawford, G. M., Frome, P. M., Clifford, R. M., Burchinal, M. R., Howes, C., Bryant, D. M., & Pianta, R. C. (2010). How do pre- kindergarteners spend their time? Gender, ethnicity, and income as predictors of experiences in pre- kindergarten classrooms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(2), 177–193. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.10.003Early, D. M., LaForett, D. R., Kraus, S., & Hume, K. (2016). Evaluation findings from Georgia’s 2015 summer Transition Program. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, FPG Child Development Institute.Ebby, C. B., Hulbert, E. T., & Broadhead, R. M. (2020). A focus on addition and subtraction: Bringing mathematics education research to the classroom. Routledge.Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. E. (1993). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. Ablex Publishing Corp.Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. E. (2012). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformation (3rd ed.). Praeger.Escayg, K.-A. (2020). Anti-racism in U.S. early childhood education: Foundational principles. Sociology Compass, 14(4), e12764. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12764Farran, D. C., & Wilson, S. J. (2014). Achievement and self-regulation in pre-kindergarten classrooms: Effects of the Tools of the Mind curriculum. Nashville, TN: Peabody Research Institute.Farver, J. A. M., Lonigan, C. J., & Eppe, S. (2009). Effective early literacy skill development for young Spanish-speaking English language learners: an experimental study of two methods. Child Dev, 80(3), 703-719. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01292.xFernando, C. (2021, March 16). Racial diversity in children’s books grew but slowly. Associated Press News. https://apnews.com/article/race-andethnicity-wisconsin-madison-childrens-books- 480e49bd32ef45e163d372201df163eeFidjeland, A., Rege, M., Solli, I. F., & Størksen, I. (2023). Reducing the gender gap in early learning: Evidence from a field experiment in Norwegian preschools. European Economic Review, 154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2023.104413Finders, J. K., Duncan, R. J., Purpura, D. J., Elicker, J., & Schmitt, S. A. (2023). Testing theoretical explanations for heterogeneity in associations between a state quality rating and improvement system and prekindergarten children’s academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 73, 102174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2023.102174 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-68First Book Research & Insights. (2023). The impact of a diverse classroom library. https://firstbook.orgFisher, K. R., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Newcombe, N., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2013). Taking shape: Supporting preschoolers' acquisition of geometric knowledge through guided play. Child Development, 84(6), 1872–1878. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12091Fleming, J., Catapano, S., Thompson, M., & Carrillo, S. (2015). More mirrors in the classroom: Using urban children’s literature to increase literacy. Rowman & Littlefield.Flook, L., Goldberg, S. B., Pinger, L., & Davidson, R. J. (2015). Promoting prosocial behavior and self- regulatory skills in preschool children through a mindfulness-based kindness curriculum. Developmental psychology., 51(1), 44-51. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038256Foster, M. E., Anthony, J. L., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2016). Improving mathematics learning of kindergarten students through computer assisted instruction. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 47(3), 206–232. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.47.3.0206Fox, L., & Hemmeter, M. L. (2009). A programwide model for supporting social emotional development and addressing challenging behavior in early childhood settings. In W. Sailor, G. Dunlop, G. Sugai, & R. Horner (Eds.), Handbook of positive behavior support (pp. 177–202). Springer Publishing Co.Fox, L., Strain, P. S., & Dunlap, G. (2021). Preventing the use of preschool suspension and expulsion: Implementing the pyramid model. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 65(4), 312-322. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988x.2021.1937026Fraivillig, J. L., Murphy, L. A., & Fuson, K. C. (1999). Advancing children's mathematical thinking in Everyday Mathematics classrooms. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30(2), 148–170.French, L. (2004). Science as the center of a coherent, integrated early childhood curriculum. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(1), 138–149. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2004.01.004Fröbel, F. W. A. (1885). The education of man. A. Lovell and Co.Frye, D., Baroody, A. J., Burchinal, M. R., Carver, S., Jordan, N. C., & McDowell, J. (2013). Teaching math to young children: A practice guide. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/18Fuller, B., Bein, E., Bridges, M., Kim, Y., & Rabe-Hesketh, S. (2017). Do academic preschools yield stronger benefits? Cognitive emphasis, dosage, and early learning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 52, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.05.001Fuson, K. C., & Briars, D. J. (1990). Using a base-ten blocks learning/teaching approach for first- and second-grade place-value and multidigit addition and subtraction. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 21(3), 180–206.Gardner-Neblett, N., & Iruka, I. U. (2015). Oral narrative skills: Explaining the language-emergent literacy link by race/ethnicity and SES. Developmental Psychology, 51(7), 889–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039274Gardner-Neblett, N., Iruka, I. U., & Humphries, M. (2023). Dismantling the Black–White Achievement Gap Paradigm: Why and How We Need to Focus Instead on Systemic Change. Journal of Education, 203(2), 433-441. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220574211031958Gardner-Neblett, N., Curenton, S. M., & Blitch, K. (2017). Viewing African American children’s oral language skills as a strength. In Curenton, S. M., T. R. Durden, & I. U. Iruka (Eds.), African American children in early childhood education (Advances in race and ethnicity in education) (Vol. 5, pp. 123–141). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.Gavin, M. K., Casa, T. M., Adelson, J. L., & Firmender, J. M. (2013). The impact of challenging geometry and measurement units on the achievement of grade 2 students. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 44(3), 478–509.Gawthorpe, A., & Davidson, K. C. (2023). Active learners in numeracy: implementing guided play for early numeracy learning. Research in Teacher Education, 13(1), 13-20. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-69Geary, D. C., Berch, D. B., & Koepke, K. M. (2019). Introduction: Cognitive foundations for improving mathematical learning. In D. C. Geary, D. B. Berch, & K. M. Koepke (Eds.), Cognitive foundations for improving mathematical learning (Vol. 5, pp. 1-36). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815952-1.00001-3Gelman, R. (1994). Constructivism and supporting environments. In D. Tirosh (Ed.), Implicit and explicit knowledge: An educational approach (Vol. 6, pp. 55–82). Ablex.Gersten, R. (1985). Direct instruction with special education students: A review of evaluation research. The Journal of Special Education, 19(1), 41–58.Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., & Flojo, J. R. (2005). Early identification and interventions for students with mathematical difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 293–304.Gervasoni, A. (2018). The impact and challenges of early mathematics intervention in an Australian context. In G. Kaiser, H. Forgasz, M. Gravenm, A. Kuzniak, E. Simmt, & B. Xu (Eds.), 13th International Congress on Mathematical Education (pp. 115-133). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72170-5Ghalichi, N., & Roehrig, G. (2017). The role of research-based curricular unit on students' systems understanding of human impact on the environment. The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational and Social Sciences, 7, 147-154.Gilliard, J. L., & Moore, R. A. (2007). An investigation of how culture shapes curriculum in early care and education programs on a Native American Indian reservation. Early Childhood Education Journal, 34(4), 251–258.Gilmore, C., Keeble, S., Richardson, S., & Cragg, L. (2017). The interaction of procedural skill, conceptual understanding and working memory in early mathematics achievement. Journal of Numerical Cognition, 3(2), 400–416. https://doi.org/10.5964/jnc.v3i2.51Ginsburg, H. P., Lee, J. S., & Stevenson-Boyd, J. (2008). Mathematics education for young children: What it is and how to promote it. Social Policy Report, 22(1), 1–24.Global Strategy Group. (2023). The need to make math more relevant and engaging for k-12 students. GSG. https://gatesfoundation.org/-/media/1dc7905be1334a7abfa8ae5ba1355217.ashxGoldstein, P., Warde, B., & Peluso, P. (2013). Children’s readiness gains in publicly funded, community- based pre-kindergarten programs for 4-year-olds and preschool for 3 year olds [In Press]. Child & Youth Care Forum. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-013-9215-0González, N., Andrade, R., Civil, M., & Moll, L. (2001). Bridging funds of distributed knowledge: Creating zones of practices in mathematics. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 6(1-2), 115-132. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327671ESPR0601-2_7González, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2006). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Routledge.Graue, E., Whyte, K., & Delaney, K. K. (2014). Fostering culturally and developmentally responsive teaching through improvisational practice. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 35(4), 297–317.Gray-Lobe, G., Pathak, P., & Walters, C. (2021). The long-term effects of universal preschool in Boston (Discussion Paper #2021.05). MIT Department of Economics and National Bureau of Economic Research. https://seii.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/210503_Boston-Pre-K_One- Pager_v12.pdfGreenfield, D. B., Alexander, A., & Frechette, E. (2017). Unleashing the power of science in early childhood. Zero to Three, 37(5), 13–21. http://www.mothergooseprograms.org/wp- content/uploads/2017/07/Unleashing-the-Power-of-Science-Zero-to-Three.pdfGrisham, J., & Hemmeter, M. L. (2017). Blended practices for teaching young children in inclusive settings. Brookes. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/du/detail.action?docID=4787826Guarrella, C., Cohrssen, C., & van Driel, J. (2021). The quality of teacher–child interactions during the enactment of playful science games in preschool. Early Education and Development, 33(4), 634-654. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2021.1900993 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-70Gunter, L., Caldarella, P., Korth, B., & Young, K. R. (2012). Promoting social and emotional learning in preschool students: A study of Strong Start Pre-k. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(3), 151– 159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-012-0507-zHalvorsen, A.-L., Duke, N. K., Brugar, K. A., Block, M. K., Strachan, S. L., Berka, M. B., & Brown, J. M. (2012). Narrowing the achievement gap in second-grade social studies and content area literacy: The promise of a project-based approach. Theory & Research in Social Education, 40(3), 198–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2012.705954Hanby, K. (2018). Teachers' formative assessment practices for early addition and subtraction: Is teachers' awareness of a learning trajectory related to how they respond to students? [Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan]. Ann Arbor, MI.Hart, E. R., Bailey, D. H., Luo, S., Sengupta, P., & Watts, T. W. (2023). Do intervention impacts on social-emotional skills persist at higher rates than impacts on cognitive skills? A meta-analysis of educational RCTs with follow-up (EdWorkingPaper: 23-782). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/7j8s-dy98Hartle, L. C. (2020). Technology and young children. In L. Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky (Eds.), STEM in early childhood education: How science, technology, engineering, and mathematics strengthen learning (pp. 22–045). Routledge.Hartman, J. R., Hart, S., Nelson, E. A., & Kirschner, P. A. (2023). Designing mathematics standards in agreement with science. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 18(3), em0739. https://doi.org/10.29333/iejme/13179Haywood, H. C. (2004). Thinking in, around, and about the curriculum: The role of cognitive education. International Journal of Disability Development and Education, 51(3), 231–252.Head Start Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center (ECLKC). (2020). Curriculum Consumer Report: Preschool. National Center on Early Childhood Development, Teaching, and Learning. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/featured_file/preschool-curriculum-consumer-report- 032519.pdfHead Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework: Ages Birth to Five(2023). eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.govHeasty, M., McLaughlin, T. F., Williams, R. L., & Keenan, B. (2012). The effects of using direct instruction mathematics formats to teach basic math skills to a third grade student with a learning disability. Academic Research International, 2(3), 382–387.Heath, S. B. (1983/1996). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms. Cambridge University Press.Heath, S. B. (1989). Oral and literate traditions among Black Americans living in poverty. American Psychologist, 44(2), 367-373.Hebbeler, K., & Spiker, D. (2016). Supporting young children with disabilities. The Future of Children, 26(2), 185-205.Heck, D. J., Chval, K. B., Weiss, I. R., & Ziebarth, S. W. (Eds.). (2012). Approaches to studying the enacted mathematics curriculum. Information Age.Helenius, O. (2017). Theorizing professional modes of action for teaching preschool mathematics. Nordic Conference on Mathematics Education, NORMA 17, Stockholm, Sweeden.Helenius, O. (2018). Explicating professional modes of action for teaching preschool mathematics [Article]. Research in Mathematics Education, 20(2), 183-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/14794802.2018.1473161Helenius, O., Johansson, M. L., Lange, T., Meaney, T., & Wernberg, A. (2016). Measuring temperature within the didaktic space of preschool. Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education, 21(4), 155–176. http://ncm.gu.se/nomadHelm, J. H., & Katz, L. G. (2016). Young investigators: The project approach in the early years (3rd ed.). Teachers College Press.Helm, J.H. & Snider K.A. (Eds.). (2020). Growing child intellect: The manifesto for engaged learning in the early years. Teachers College Press.Hendrick, J. (Ed.). (1997). First steps toward teaching the Reggio way. Prentice-Hall. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-71Herodotou, C. (2018). Young children and tablets: A systematic review of effects on learning and development. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 34(1), 1–9.Herrmann-Abell, C. F., Koppal, M., & Roseman, J. E. (2016). Toward high school biology: Helping middle school students understand chemical reactions and conservation of mass in non-living and living systems. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 15(ar74), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-03- 0112Hiebert, J. C., & Grouws, D. A. (2007). The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on students' learning. In F. K. Lester, Jr. (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (Vol. 1, pp. 371–404). Information Age Publishing.Hill, H. C. (2020). Does studying student data really raise test scores? EdWeek. Retrieved Feb. 7, from https://www.edweek.org/technology/opinion-does-studying-student-data-really-raise-test- scores/2020/02Hilty, R., Boddicker-Young, P., Hegseth, D., Thompson, J., Bultinck, E., Fojut, J., & Early, D. (2021). Understanding equitable access to public Montessori pre-k: A case study of Montessori recruitment and enrollment practices. Child Trends.Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2008). Why play = learning. In R. E. Tremblay, R. G. Barr, R. D. Peters, & M. Boivin (Eds.), Encyclopedia on early childhood development (pp. 1–7). Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development. www.child-encyclopedia.com/pages/PDF/Hirsh- Pasek-GolinkoffANGxp.pdfHirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Berk, L. E., & Singer, D. G. (2009). A mandate for playful learning in preschool: Presenting the evidence. Oxford University Press.Hjalmarson, M. A., & Baker, C. K. (2020). Mathematics specialists as the hidden players in professional development: Researchable questions and methodological considerations. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education(18), 51-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-020-10077-7Hojnoski, R. L., Caskie, G. I. L., & Miller Young, R. (2018). Early numeracy trajectories: Baseline performance levels and growth rates in young children by disability status. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 37(4), 206–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121417735901Hong, D. S., Choi, K. M., Hwang, J., & Runnalls, C. (2021). The pacing of volume lessons in American elementary textbooks compared to students' development in volume measurement. Journal of the Korean Society of Mathematical Education, 24(2), 83-109. https://doi.org/10.7468/jksmed.2021.24.2.83Hong, S. B., Broderick, J. T., & McAuliffe, C. M. (2020). Drawing to learn: A classroom case study. Early Childhood Education Journal, 49(1), 15-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-020-01041-9Hsin, C.-T., Li, M.-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2014). The influence of young children's use of technology on their learning: A review. Educational Technology & Society, 17(4), 85–99.Hwang, H., & Duke, N. K. (2020). Content counts and motivation matters: Reading comprehension in third-grade students who are English Learners. AERA Open, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419899075Ikram, H. (2017). Effect of teachers' professional development in media technology on preschoolers learning in rural settings. In J. Johnston (Ed.), Proceedings of EdMedia 2017 (pp. 509-513). Washington, DC: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/178355/Ikram, H. (2017). Effect of teachers' professional development in media technology on preschoolers learning in rural settings. In J. Johnston (Ed.), Proceedings of EdMedia 2017 (pp. 509-513). Washington, DC: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/178355/Institute of Education Sciences. (2007). Dialogic reading (What Works Clearinghouse intervention report). U.S. Department of Education. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/InterventionReports/WWC_Dialogic_Reading_020807.pdfInstitute of Education Sciences. (2013). Doors to Discovery. What Works Clearinghouse Intervention Report. U.S. Department of Education. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-72 Institute of Medicine (IOM) and National Research Council (NRC). (2015). Transforming the workforce for children birth through age 8: A unifying foundation. National Academy Press. www.nap.edu/catalog/19401/transforming-the-workforce-for-children-birth-through-age-8-aInstitute of Medicine (IOM) and National Research Council. (2010). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. Institute of Medicine.International Literacy Association. (2018). What effective Pre-K literacy instruction looks like: Literacy Leadership Brief. Newark, DE: Author.Iruka, I. U. (2024). Advancing equity in early childhood education research. In J. J. Mueller, N. File, A. J. Stremmel, I. U. Iruka, & K. L. Whyte, Understanding Research in Early Childhood Education (pp. 12). Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781003354499-4Jagers, R. J., Rivas-Drake, D., & Williams, B. (2019). Transformative social and emotional learning (SEL): Toward SEL in service of educational equity and excellence. Educational Psychologist, 54(3), 162-184.Jen, J., Oscar, K., & Anna, R. (2023). Early childhood learning trajectories: The evidence base, Australian Education Research Organisation. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/APO-323253Jenkins, J. M., Duncan, G. J., Auger, A., Bitler, M. P., Domina, T., & Burchinal, M. R. (2018). Boosting school readiness: Should preschool teachers target skills or the whole child? Economic of Education Review, 65, 107–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.05.001Jiang, H., Justice, L. M., Lin, T.-J., Purtell, K. M., & Sun, J. (2023). Peer experiences in the preschool classroom: Contribution to Children's academic development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 86, 101542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2023.101542John, M.-S., Sibuma, B., Wunnava, S., Anggoro, F., & Dubosarsky, M. (2018). An iterative participatory approach to developing an early childhood problem-based STEM curriculum. European Journal of STEM Education, 3(3), 7. https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/3867Johnston, L.J. (2016). Education self-determination superstars: Cochiti Pueblo takes on language- learning. Indian Country Media Network.Jones, E., & Nimmo, J. (1994). Emergent curriculum. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.Joseph, G. E., & Strain, P. S. (2010). Teaching young children interpersonal problem-solving skills. Young Exceptional Children, 13(3), 28–40.Joseph, G. E., Yates, T., & Ostrosky, M. (2021). Strategies to foster emotional literacy. In M. L. Hemmeter, M. M. Ostrosky, & L. Fox (Eds.), Unpacking the Pyramid Model: A practical guide for preschool teachers. (pp. 131–140). Brookes.Justice, L. M., Chow, S.-M., Capellini, C., Flanigan, K., & Colton, S. (2015). Emergent literacy intervention for vulnerable preschoolers: Relative effects of two approaches. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 558–576. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000007Justice, L. M., Mashburn, A. J., B., H., & Pianta, R. C. (2008). Quality of language and literacy instruction in preschool classrooms serving at-risk pupils. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(1), 51–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.09.004Kagan, S. L., & Reid, J. L. (2022). Reaching for consensus about preschool curricula. Kappan, 104(2), 50-55.Kang, C. Y., Duncan, G. J., Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & Bailey, D. H. (2019). The roles of transfer of learning and forgetting in the persistence and fadeout of early childhood mathematics interventions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(4), 590–603. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000297Karademir, A., & Akman, B. (2021). Preschool inquiry-based mathematics in practice: Perspectives of teachers and parents. Journal of Qualitative Research in Education, 25, 151-178. https://doi.org/10.14689/enad.25.7Karaya, N. N. (2022). A case study examining how teachers and parents provide strategies that nurture the academic and social development of young Black children in low-socioeconomic communities [Doctoral dissertation, Liberty University]. Lynchburg, VA. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-73Katz, L. G., Chard, S. C., & Kogan, Y. l. (2014). Engaging children's minds: The project approach (3rd ed.). Praeger. http://publisher.abc-clio.com/9781440828447Kim, C., Yuan, J., Gleasman, C., Shin, M., & Hill, R. B. (2017). Preparing pre-service early childhood teachers to teach mathematics with robots. In B. K. Smith, M. Borge, E. Mercier, & K. Y. Lim (Eds.), Making a Difference: Prioritizing Equity and Access in CSCL, 12th International Conference on Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) (Vol. 2). Philadelphia, PA: International Society of the Learning Sciences. https://doi.org/10.22318/cscl2017.92Kimpston, R. D., & Rogers, K. B. (1986). A framework for curriculum research. Curriculum Inquiry, 16(4), 463–474.Kinzie, M. B., Whittaker, J. V., McGuire, P., Lee, Y., & Kilday, C. (2015). Research on curricular development for pre-kindergarten mathematics and science. Teachers College Record, 117(7), 1–40.Kinzie, M. B., Whittaker, J. V., Williford, A. P., DeCoster, J., McGuire, P., Lee, Y., & Kilday, C. R. (2014). "MyTeachingPartner--Math/Science" pre-kindergarten curricula and teacher supports: Associations with children's mathematics and science learning. Grantee Submission, 29, 586–599.Klein, A., Starkey, P., & Deflorio, L. (2019). Improving the mathematical knowledge of at-risk preschool children: Two approaches to intensifying early math intervention. In D. C. Geary, D. B. Berch, & K. M. Koepke (Eds.), Cognitive Foundations for Improving Mathematical Learning (Vol. 5, pp. 215– 245). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815952-1.00009-8Knapp, M. S., Shields, P. M., & Turnbull, B. J. (1992). Academic challenge for the children of poverty. U.S. Department of Education.Knaus, M. J. (2017). Supporting early mathematics learning in early childhood settings. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 42(3), 4–13. https://doi.org/10.23965/AJEC.42.3.01Koç, K., Koç, Y., & Albayrak, S. B. (2023). Exploring early childhood teachers' differentiation practices in teaching mathematics with learning trajectories. In M. Licardo, J. Mezak, & I. l. E. Gencel (Eds.), Teaching for the future in early childhood education (pp. 77-94). University of Maribor University Press. https://doi.org/10.18690/um.pef.2.2023Kramer, T., Caldarella, P., Christensen, L., & Shatzer, R. (2010). Social and emotional learning in the kindergarten classroom: Evaluation of the strong start curriculum. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(4), 303–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-009-0354-8Kreskey, D. D., & Truscott, S. D. (2016). Is computer-aided instruction an effective tier-one intervention for kindergarten students at risk for reading failure in an applied setting? Contemporary School Psychology, 20(2), 142–151.La Paro, K. M., Hamre, B. K., Locasale-Crouch, J., Pianta, R. C., Bryant, D., Early, D. M., Clifford, R. M., Barbarin, O. A., Howes, C., & Burchinal, M. R. (2009). Quality in kindergarten classrooms: Observational evidence for the need to increase children's learning opportunities in early education classrooms. Early Education and Development, 20(4), 657–692. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280802541965Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. Jossey-Bass.Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory Into Practice, 34(3), 159-165.Lagemann, E. C. (1997). Contested terrain: A history of education research in the United States, 1890- 1990. Educational Researcher, 26(9), 5–17. ttp://www.jstor.org/stable/1176271Lai, Y., Carlson, M. A., & Heaton, R. M. (2018). Giving reason and giving purpose. In Y. Li, W. J. Lewis, & J. J. Madden (Eds.), Mathematics matters in education: Essays in honor of Roger E. Howe (pp. 149–171). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61434-2_7Langub, L., & Warner, M. (2018). Fostering digital literacy development with elementary & early childhood educators. Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2018, Washington, D.C., United States. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-74Larkin, K., Lommatsch, C., Resnick, I., & Lowrie, T. (2022). The design and use of a digital tool to support the development of preschool children’s logical reasoning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 55(6), 1080-1093. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2022.2107590Le, V.-N., Schaack, D., Neishi, K., Hernandez, M. W., & Blank, R. K. (2019). Advanced content coverage at kindergarten: Are there trade-offs between academic achievement and social-emotional skills? American Educational Research Journal, 56(4), 1254-1280. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218813913Lee, C. D., Lomotey, K., & Shujaa, M. J. (1990). How shall we sing our sacred song in a strange land? The dilemma of double-consciousness and the complexities of an African-center pedagogy. Journal of Education, 172(2), 45-61.Lehrl, S., Kluczniok, K., Rossbach, H.-G., & Anders, Y. (2017). Longer-term effects of a high-quality preschool intervention on children’s mathematical development through age 12: Results from the German model project Kindergarten of the Future in Bavaria. Global Education Review, 4(3), 70–87.Lei, Q., & Xin, Y. P. (2023). A synthesis of mathematical word problem‐solving instructions for English learners with learning disabilities in mathematics. Review of Education, 11(2), e3396. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3396LeSage, A., & Ruttenberg-Rozen, R. (2021). “More Gooder”: children evaluate early numeracy apps. In M. van den Heuvel-Panhuizen & A. Kullberg (Eds.), Mathematics education at preschool level: Proceedings of the 14th International Congress on Mathematical Education (pp. 89-93).Leung, W. M. V. (2023). STEM education in early years: Challenges and opportunities in changing teachers’ pedagogical strategies. Education Sciences, 13(5), 490. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13050490Lewis Presser, A., Clements, M., Ginsburg, H. P., & Ertle, B. (2015). Big Math for Little Kids: The effectiveness of a preschool and kindergarten mathematics curriculum. Early Education and Development, 26(3), 399–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.994451Lewis, C. C., Perry, R., & Murata, A. (2006). How should research contribute to instructional improvement? The case of lesson study. Educational Researcher, 35(3), 3–14.Li, Y., Howe, R. E., Lewis, W. J., & Madden, J. J. (Eds.). (2021). Developing mathematical proficiency for elementary instruction. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68956-8.Lieber, J., Hanson, M., Butera, G., Palmer, S., Horn, E., & Czaja, C. (2010). Do preschool teachers sustain their use of a new curriculum? [Journal Article]. NHSA Dialog: A Research-to-Practice Journal for the Early Intervention Field, 13(4), 248–252. http://du.summon.serialssolutions.com/document/show?id=FETCHMERGED-LOGICAL-e441- b2c119e1cb684f1477501dfadb1f5995cc7b24e8d0508ff95b49b10452d6883a1&s.q=Do+preschool+te achers+sustain+their+use+of+a+new+curriculum%3FLillard, A. & Else-Quest, N. (2006). Evaluating Montessori Education. Science, 313, 1893-1894. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132362Lillard, A. S. (2013). Playful learning and Montessori education. American Journal of Play, 5(2), 157- 186.Lillard, A. S., Tong, X., & Bray, P. M. (2023). Seeking racial and ethnic parity in preschool outcomes: An exploratory study of public Montessori schools vs. business-as-usual schools. Journal of Montessori Research, 9(1), 16-36.Lillard, A.S. (2012). Preschool children’s development in classic Montessori, supplemented Montessori, and conventional programs. Journal of Schol Psychology, 50, 379-401.Lilliard, A.S., Heise, M.J., Richey, E.M., Tong, X., Hart, A., & Bry, P.M. (2017). Montessori preschool elevates and equalizes child outcomes: A longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1783. Open access.Lipka, J., & Adams, B. (2002). Improving Alaska Native rural and urban students' mathematical understanding of perimeter and area [Unpublished manuscript]. Alaska School Research Fund.List, J., Cappelen, A. W., Tungodden, B., & Samek, A. (2020). The effect of early childhood education on social preferences. Journal of Political Economy, 128(7). https://doi.org/10.1086/706858 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-75Little, M., & Gragson, A. (2023). State leaders in early childhood education: Perspectives on instructional policy supports and alignment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 63, 288-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.12.016Lloyd, G. M., Cai, J., & Tarr, J. E. (2017). Issues in curriculum studies: Evidence-based insights and future directions. In J. Cai (Ed.), Compendium for research in mathematics education (pp. 824–852). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.Loflink, G., & Loya, J. (2010). The nature of Mexican American third graders’ engagement with culturally relevant picture books. Bilingual Research Journal, 3(3), 346-363.Lonigan, C. J., Farver, J. M., Clancy-Menchetti, J., & Phillips, B. M. (2005). Promoting the development of preschool children’s emergent literacy skills: A randomized evaluation of a literacy-focused curriculum and two professional development models. Child Development, 80(3), 703-719.Lonigan, C. J., & Phillips, B. M. (2012, March). Comparing skills-focused and self-regulation focused preschool curricula: Impacts on academic and self-regulatory skills. Paper presented at the Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness, Washington, DC.Lonigan, C. J., Farver, J. M., Phillips, B.M., & Clancy-Menchetti, J. (2011). Promoting the development of preschool children’s emergent literacy skills: A randomized evaluation of literacy-focused curriculum and two professional development models. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 24, 305-337.Lynch, K.B. (1998). Results of Michigan Replication Study 1996-97: Child Outcomes. Al’s Pals: Kids Making Healthy Choices. Richmond, VA: Virginia Institute for Development Disabilities, Virginia Commonwealth University.Lynch, K.B., Geller, S.R., & Schmidt, M.G. (2004). Multi-year evaluation of the effectiveness of a resilience-based prevention program for young children. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 24(3), 335-353.Ma, L. (1999). Knowing and teaching elementary mathematics: Teachers' understanding of fundamental mathematics in China and the United States. Erlbaum.Ma, L. (1999). Knowing and teaching elementary mathematics: Teachers' understanding of fundamental mathematics in China and the United States. Erlbaum.Ma, L., & Kessel, C. (2018). The theory of school arithmetic: Whole numbers. In M. G. Bartolini Bussi & X. H. Sun (Eds.), Building the foundation: Whole numbers in the primary grades: The 23rd ICMI study (pp. 439-463). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63555-2_9Ma, L., & Kessel, C. (2018). The theory of school arithmetic: Whole numbers. In M. G. Bartolini Bussi & X. H. Sun (Eds.), Building the foundation: Whole numbers in the primary grades: The 23rd ICMI study (pp. 439-463). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63555-2_9Major, S. O., Gaspar, M. F., Palos, A. C., & Pereira, M. D. (2024). Effectiveness of the Incredible Years® Teacher Classroom Management program: Preschool children's outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2023.101616Makel, M. C., Hodges, J., Cook, B. G., & Plucker, J. A. (2021). Both questionable and open research practices are prevalent in education research. Educational Researcher, 50(8), 493-504. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x211001356Maloney, A. P., Confrey, J., & Nguyen, K. H. (Eds.). (2014). Learning over time: Learning trajectories in mathematics education. Information Age Publishing.Mantzicopoulos, P., & Patrick, H. (2011). Reading picture books and learning science: Engaging young children with informational text. Theory Into Practice, 50(4), 269–276. www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00405841.2011.607372Marklund, L. (2015). Preschool teachers' informal online professional development in relation to educational use of tablets in Swedish preschools. Professional Development in Education, 41(2), 236– 253.Marti, M., Melvin, S., Noble, K. G., & Duch, H. (2018). Intervention fidelity of Getting Ready for School: Associations with classroom and teacher characteristics and preschooler’s school readiness skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 44, 55-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.02.010 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-76Mattera, S. K., Jacob, R., MacDowell, C., & Morris, P. A. (2021). Long-term effects of enhanced early childhood math instruction: The impacts of Making Pre-K Count and High 5s on third-grade outcomes. MDRC. https://www.mdrc.org/publication/long-term-effects-enhanced-early-childhood- math-instructionMattera, S. K., Rojas, N. M., Morris, P. A., & Bierman, K. (2021). Promoting EF with preschool interventions: Lessons learned from 15 years of conducting large-scale studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.640702Maxwell, K., Yi, P., Kraus, S. & Hume, K. (2013). Evaluation findings from Georgia’s 2012 Pre-K Summer Transition Program. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, FPG Child Development Institute.McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., Schmitt, S. A., Hatfield, B. E., Purpura, D. J., Gonzales, C. R., & Tracy, A. N. (2019). Red Light, Purple Light! Results of an Intervention to Promote School Readiness for Children From Low-Income Backgrounds. Front Psychol, 10, 2365. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02365McClelland, M.M., Tominey, S.L., Schmitt, S.A., & Duncan, R. (2017). SEL Interventions in early childhood. The Future of Children, 27(1), 33-48.McCormick, M. P., Weiland, C., Hsueh, J., Maier, M. F., Hagos, R., Snow, C. E., Leaco*ck, N., & Schick, L. (2019). Promoting content-enriched alignment across the early grades: A study of policies & practices in the Boston Public Schools. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 52, 57-73. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.06.012McIntosh, K., Girvan, E. J., Fairbanks Falcon, S., McDaniel, S. C., Smolkowski, K., Bastable, E., Santiago-Rosario, M. R., Izzard, S., Austin, S. C., Nese, R. N. T., & Baldy, T. S. (2021). Equity- focused PBIS approach reduces racial inequities in school discipline: A randomized controlled trial. School Psychology, 36(6), 433-444. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000466MD State Department of Education. (.no date). Maryland Early Learning Standards. earlychildhood.marylandpublicschools.orgMeaney, T. (2018). Mathematics curricula: Issues of access and quality. In M. Jurdak & R. Vithal (Eds.), Sociopolitical Dimensions of Mathematics Education: From the Margin to Mainstream (pp. 171– 189). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72610-6_10Merkley, R., & Ansari, D. (2018). Foundations for learning: Guided play for Early Years maths education. Chartered College of Teaching. https://my.chartered.college/impact_article/foundations- for-learning-guided-play-for-early-years-maths-education/Messick, S. (1989). Validity. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (3rd ed., pp. 13-103). Macmillan.Mesutoglu, C., & Corlu, M. S. (2023). The earlySTEM Program: An evaluation through teacher perceptions. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 23, 145-160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42330-023-00264-3Michigan Association of Intermediate School Administrators General Education Leadership Network Early Literacy Task Force. (2023). Essential instructional practices in early literacy: Prekindergarten. Lansing, MI: Authors. https://literacyessentials.org/downloads/gelndocs/pre-k_literacy_essentials.pdfMoffett, L., Weissman, A., Weiland, C., McCormick, M., Hsueh, J., Snow, C., & Sachs, J. (2021). Unpacking pre-K classroom organization: Types, variation, and links to school readiness gains. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 77, 101346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101346Moll, L. C., Amanti, C., Neff, D., & Gonzalez, N. (1992). Funds of knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory into Practice, 31, 132–141.Moore, T. J., Selcen Guzey, S., Roehrig, G. H., & Lesh, R. A. (2018). Representational fluency: A means for students to develop STEM literacy. In K. L. Daniel (Ed.), Towards a Framework for Representational Competence in Science Education (pp. 13-30). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89945-9_2 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-77Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., Pun, W. H., & Maczuga, S. (2018). Kindergarten children's executive functions predict their second-grade academic achievement and behavior. Child Dev. 90(5), 1802-1816. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13095Morris, P. A., Mattera, S. K., Castells, N., Bangser, M., Bierman, K. L., & Raver, C. C. (2014). Impact findings from the Head Start CARES Demonstration: National evaluation of three approaches to improving preschoolers’ social and emotional competence (OPRE Report 2014-44) [not online]. Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Mueller, J. J., File, N., Stremmel, A. J., Iruka, I., & Whyte, K. L. (2024). Understanding research in early Childhood Education: Quantitative and Qualitative methods. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003354499-4Mulcahy, C., Day Hess, C. A., Clements, D. H., Ernst, J. R., Pan, S. E., Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Sarama, J. (2021). Supporting young children’s development of executive function through early mathematics. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8(2), 192-199. https://doi.org/10.1177/23727322211033005Mulligan, J. T., Oslington, G., & English, L. D. (2020). Supporting early mathematical development through a ‘pattern and structure’ intervention program. ZDM – Mathematics Education, 52(4), 663- 676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-020-01147-9Munter, C., Cobb, P., & Shekell, C. (2016). The role of program theory in evaluation research: A consideration of the what works clearinghouse standards in the case of mathematics education. American Journal of Evaluation, 37(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214015571122Murphy, K. A., Pentimonti, J. M., & Chow, J. C. (2023). Supporting children’s language and literacy through collaborative shared book reading. Intervention in School and Clinic, 58(3), 155–163.Myran, S. P., Richardson, R. C., & Stonelson, S. (2009). Teaching social and emotional competence in early childhood. International Journal of Special Education, 24(3), 143–149.NAEYC. (2019). Advancing equity in early childhood education: Position statement. National Association for the Education of Young Children.NAEYC. (2022). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8, 4th ed. (H. Bohart & R. Procopio, Eds.). National Association for the Education of Young Children.National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Promoting the educational success of children and youth learning English: Promising futures. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24677National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018a). English learners in STEM subjects: Transforming classrooms, schools, and lives. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25182National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018b). How people learn II: Learners, contexts, and cultures. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24783National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2020). Changing expectations for the K-12 teacher workforce: Policies, preservice education, professional development, and the workplace (R. Floden, A. Stephens, & L. Scherer, Eds.). The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25603National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2022). Science and engineering in preschool through elementary grades: The brilliance of children and the strengths of educators. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25912National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2023. Reducing Intergenerational Poverty. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/27058.National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations. (no date). Practice strategies: Teaching social-emotional skills Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-78National Council for the Social Studies. (2013). The college, career, and civic life (C3) framework for social studies state standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Silver Spring, MD: National Council for the Social Studies.National Institute for Literacy. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel, A Scientific Synthesis of Early Literacy Development and Implications for Intervention. Washington, DC: Author.National Mathematics Advisory Panel. (2008). Foundations for success: The final report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED500486National Research Council. (2001a). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9822.National Research Council. (2001b). Eager to learn: Educating our preschoolers. National Academy Press.National Research Council. (2002). Scientific research in education (Committee on Scientific Principles for Educational Research, Ed.). National Research Council, National Academy Press.National Research Council. (2004). On evaluating curricular effectiveness: Judging the quality of K-12 mathematics evaluations. Mathematical Sciences Education Board, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, The National Academies Press. http://books.nap.edu/books/0309092426/html/National Research Council. (2009). Mathematics learning in early childhood: Paths toward excellence and equity. National Academy Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/12519National Research Council. (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press.National Research Council. (2013). Next generation science standards: For states, by states. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/18290Nesbitt, K. T., & Farran, D. C. (2021). Effects of prekindergarten curricula: Tools of the Mind as a case study. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 86(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12425Nesbitt, K. T., & Farran, D. C. (2021). Effects of prekindergarten curricula: Tools of the Mind as a case study. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 86(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12425Nese, R. N. T., Santiago‐Rosario, M. R., Malose, S., Hamilton, J., Nese, J. F. T., & Horner, R. (2021). Improving a universal intervention for reducing exclusionary discipline practices using student and teacher guidance. Psychology in the Schools, 59(10), 2042-2061. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22576Neuman, S. B. & Kaefer, T. (2018). Developing low-income children’s vocabulary instruction in re-K. The Reading Teacher, 62(5), 384-392.Neuman, S. B., Kaefer, T., & Pinkham, A. M. (2016). Improving low-income preschoolers’ word and world knowledge: The effects of content-rich instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 116(4), 652-674.Neuman, S. B., Newman, E. H., & Dwyer, J. (2011). Educational Effects of a Vocabulary Intervention on Preschoolers' Word Knowledge and Conceptual Development: A Cluster‐Randomized Trial. Reading Research Quarterly, 46(3), 249-272. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.46.3.3Nicolopoulou, A., Cortina, K. S., Ilgaz, H., Cates, C. B., & de Sa, A. B. (2015). Using a narrative- and play-based activity to promote low-income preschoolers' oral language, emergent literacy, and social competence. Early Child Res Q, 31, 147-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.01.006Nix, R. L., Bierman, K. L., Domitrovich, C. E., & Gill, S. (2013). Promoting children's social-emotional skills in preschool can enhance academic and behavioral functioning in kindergarten: findings from Head Start REDI. Early Education and Development, 24(7), 1000–1019. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-79Nores, M., Figueras-Daniel, A., Lopez, M. A., & Bernal, R. (2018). Implementing aeioTU: Quality improvement alongside an efficacy study--learning while growing. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (Special Issue: Implementation Research and Practice for Early Childhood Development), 1419(1), 201-217.Nowicki, B., Sullivan-Watts, B., Shim, M., Young, B., & Pockalny, R. (2013). Factors influencing science content accuracy in elementary inquiry science lessons. Research in Science Education, 43, 1135–1154.Nunes, T., Dorneles, B. V., Lin, P.-J., & Rathgeb-Schnierer, E. (2016). Teaching and learning about whole numbers in primary school. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45113-8_1Nyisztor, D., & Marcus, B. (2008). Concepts and content belong in early childhood curriculum [Article]. Canadian Children, 33(2), 16–19. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=35301587&site=ehost- live&scope=siteO’Brien, L. M., Paratore, J. R., Salinas, A., & Blodgett, S. (2023). Using connected teaching and learning to deepen children’s interdisciplinary learning. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 21(2), 181–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X221145503Orcan-Kacan, M., Karacelik, S., Aktug, N. D., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2023). The effect of the Building Blocks education program on Turkish preschool children’s recognition of geometrical shapes. European Journal of Educational Sciences, 10(1), 53-68. https://doi.org/10.19044/ejes.v10no1a53Özcan, Z. Ç., & Doğan, H. (2017). A longitudinal study of early math skills, reading comprehension and mathematical problem solving. Pegem Eğitim ve Öğretim Dergisi, 8(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.14527/pegegog.2018.001Palincsar, A. S. (1986). The role of dialogue in providing scaffolded instruction. Educational Psychologist, 21(1-2), 73–98.Paliwal, V., & Baroody, A. J. (2020). Fostering the learning of subtraction concepts and the subtraction- as-addition reasoning strategy. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 403-415.Papadakis, S., & Kalogiannakis, M. (2019). Evaluating a course for teaching introductory programming with Scratch to pre-service kindergarten teachers [Article]. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 11(3), 231-246. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJTEL.2019.100478Park, M., O’Toole, A., & Katsiaficas, C. (2017). Dual language learners: A national demographic and policy profile. Migration Policy Institute. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED589153Pearman II, F. A., Springer, M., Lipsey, M., Lachowicz, M., Swain, W., & Farran, D. (2019). Teachers, schools, and pre-K effect persistence: An examination of the sustaining environment hypothesis. (EdWorkingPaper: 19-85). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. http://www.edworkingpapers.com/ai19-85Pentimonti, J. M., & Justice, L. M. (2010). Teachers’ use of scaffolding strategies during read alouds in the preschool classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(4), 241–248.Pentimonti, J. M., Justice, L. M., Yeomans-Maldonado, G., McGinty, A. S., Slocum, L., & O'Connell, A. (2017). Teachers' use of high- and low-support scaffolding strategies to differentiate language instruction in high-risk/economically disadvantaged settings. Journal of Early Intervention, 39(2), 125-146. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815117700865Pentimonti, J. M., Zucker, T. A., Justice, L. M., & Kaderavek, J. N. (2010). Information text use in preschool read alouds. The Reading Teacher, 63(8), 656–665.Pepin, B., Choppin, J. M., Ruthven, K., & Sinclair, N. (2017). Digital curriculum resources in mathematics education: foundations for change. ZDM – Mathematics Education, 49(5), 645-661. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-017-0879-zPiaget, J. (1964). Development and learning. In R. E. Ripple & V. N. Rockcastle (Eds.), Piaget rediscovered (pp. 7–20). Cornell University.Piaget, J. (1973). To understand is to invent: The future of education. New York: Grossman Publishers. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-80Piasta, S. B. (2014). Moving to assessment-guided differentiated instruction to support young children’s alphabet knowledge. The Reading Teacher, 68(3), 202–211. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1316Piasta, S. B. (2023). The science of early alphabet instruction: What we do and do not know. In S. Q. Cabell, S. B. Neuman, & N. P. Terry (Eds.), Handbook on the Science of Early Literacy (pp. 83-94). Guilford.Piasta, S. B., Justice, L. M., McGinty, A. S., & Kaderavek, J. N. (2012). Increasing young children's contact with print during shared reading: Longitudinal effects on literacy achievement. ChildPiasta, S. B., Park, S., Fitzgerald, L. R., & Libnoch, H. A. (2022). Young children's alphabet learning as a function of instruction and letter difficulty. Learning and Individual Differences, 93, 102113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102113Piasta, S. B., Purpura, D. J., & Wager, R. K. (2010). Fostering alphabet knowledge development: A comparison of two instructional approaches. Reading & Writing, 23(6), 607–626.Pound, L. (2017). Count on play: The importance of play in making sense of mathematics. In G. Goodliff, N. Canning, J. Parry, & L. Miller (Eds.), Young Children’s Play and Creativity: Multiple Voices (pp. 220–228). Routledge.Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research Consortium. (2008). Effects of preschool curriculum programs on school readiness (NCER 2008-2009). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Presmeg, N. C. (2007). The role of culture in teaching and learning mathematics. In F. K. Lester, Jr. (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (Vol. 1, pp. 435–458). Information Age Publishing.Purpura, D. J., Schmitt, S. A., Napoli, A. R., Dobbs-Oates, J., King, Y. A., Hornburg, C. B., Westerberg, L., Borriello, G. A., Bryant, L. M., Anaya, L. Y., Kung, M., Litkowski, E., Lin, J., & Rolan, E. (2021). Engaging caregivers and children in picture books: A family-implemented mathematical language intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(7), 1338-1353. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000662Raudenbush, S. W. (2009). The Brown legacy and the O'Connor challenge: Transforming schools in the images of children's potential. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 169–180. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09334840Raver, C. C., Jones, S. M., Li-Grining, C., Zhai, F., Metzger, M. W., & Solomon, B. (2009). Targeting children's behavior problems in preschool classrooms: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(2), 302–316. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015302Reikerås, E. (2016). Central skills in toddlers’ and pre-schoolers’ mathematical development, observed in play and everyday activities. Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education, 21(4), 57–77. http://ncm.gu.se/nomadRestrepo, M. A., Schwanenflugel, P. J., Blake, J., Neuharth-Pritchett, S., Cramer, S. E., & Ruston, H. P. (2006). Performance on the PPVT–III and the EVT: Applicability of the measures with African American and European American preschool children.Reyes, I., Da Silva Iddings, A. C., & Feller, N. (2016). Building relationships with diverse students and families: A funds of knowledge perspective. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 16(1), 8-33.Riggs, N. R., Greenberg, M. T., Kusché, C. A., & Pentz, M. A. (2006). The mediational role of neurocognition in the behavioral outcomes of a social-emotional prevention program in elementary school students: Effects of the PATHS curriculum. Prevention Science, 7(1), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-005-0022-1Rinaldi, C. (2021). In dialogue with Reggio Emilia: Listening, researching and learning (2nd ed.). Routledge.Roberts, T. A., & Sadler, C. D. (2019). Letter sound characters and imaginary narratives: Can they enhance motivation and letter sound learning? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 97-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.002 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-81Roberts, T. A., Vadasy, P. F., & Sanders, E. A. (2019). Preschool instruction in letter names and sounds: does contextualized or decontextualized instruction matter? Reading Research Quarterly, 55(4), 573- 600. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.284Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. Oxford University Press.Samuelsson, I. P., Sheridan, S., & Williams, P. (2006). Five preschool curricula – Comparative perspective. International Journal of Early Childhood, 38(1), 11-30.Sanders, K. E., Deihl, A., & Kyler, A. (2007). DAP in the ’hood: Perceptions of child care practices by African American child care directors caring for children of color. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22(3), 394-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.03.002Sandhofer, C. M., & Uchikoshi, Y. (2013). Cognitive consequences of dual language learning: Cognitive function, language and literacy, science and mathematics, and social–emotional development. In Governor’s State Advisory Council on Early Learning and Care (Ed.), California’s best practices for young dual language learners research overview papers (pp. 51–89). Department of Education.Sanford DeRousie, R. M., & Bierman, K. L. (2012). Examining the sustainability of an evidence-based preschool curriculum: The REDI program. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(1), 55–56.Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2008). Linking research and software development. In G. W. Blume & M. K. Heid (Eds.), Research on technology and the teaching and learning of mathematics: Volume 2, cases and perspectives (Vol. 2, pp. 113–130). Information Age Publishing.Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2009a). Building blocks and cognitive building blocks: Playing to know the world mathematically. American Journal of Play, 1(3), 313–337.Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2009b). Early childhood mathematics education research: Learning trajectories for young children. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203883785Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2015a). Preschoolers getting in shape. In Exploring math and science in preschool (pp. 35–37). National Association for the Education of Young Children.Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2015b). Scaling up early mathematics interventions: Transitioning with trajectories and technologies. In B. Perry, A. MacDonald, & A. Gervasoni (Eds.), Mathematics and transition to school: International perspectives (pp. 153–169). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-98 t -287·215-9_ 10Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2019). The Building Blocks and TRIAD projects. In P. Sztajn & P. H. Wilson (Eds.), Learning trajectories for teachers: Designing effective professional development for math instruction (pp. 104–131). Teachers College Press.Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2021). Long-range impact of a scale-up model on mathematics teaching and learning: Persistence, sustainability, and diffusion. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1891/JCEP-D-20-00005Sarama, J., Brenneman, K., Clements, D. H., Duke, N. K., & Hemmeter, M. L. (2016). Connect4Learning: The Pre-K Curriculum. Connect4Learning. https://www.connect4learning.com/pdfs/C4L_White_Paper_Overview_REV_10_16.pdfSarama, J., Brenneman, K., Clements, D. H., Duke, N. K., & Hemmeter, M. L. (2017). Interdisciplinary teaching across multiple domains: The C4L (Connect4Learning) Curriculum. In L. B. Bailey (Ed.), Implementing a standards-based curriculum in the early childhood classroom (pp. 1–53). Routledge.Sarama, J., Clements, D. H., & Spitler, M. E. (2017). Evidence of teacher change after participating in TRIAD’s learning trajectories-based professional development and after implementing learning trajectory-based mathematics. Mathematics Teacher Education and Development, 19(3), 58-75.Sarama, J., Clements, D. H., Baroody, A. J., Kutaka, T. S., Chernyavskiy, P., Shi, J., & Cong, M. (2021). Testing a theoretical assumption of a learning-trajectories approach in teaching length measurement to kindergartners. AERA Open, 7(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584211026657Sarama, J., Clements, D. H., Wolfe, C. B., & Spitler, M. E. (2016). Professional development in early mathematics: Effects of an intervention based on learning trajectories on teachers’ practices. Nordic Studies in Mathematics Education, 21(4), 29–55. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-82Savvas Learning Company. (2014). Opening the World of Larning OWL Program Overview.. mysavvastraining.com.Schickedanz, J., Dickinson, D. K., & Charlotte-Mecklenberg Schools. (2005). Opening the world of learning: A comprehensive literacy program. Pearson Early Learning.Schmitt, S. A., Korucu, I., Napoli, A. R., Bryant, L. M., & Purpura, D. J. (2018). Using block play to enhance preschool children’s mathematics and executive functioning: A randomized controlled trial. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 44, 181-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.006Schmitt, S. A., McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., & Aco*ck, A. C. (2015). Strengthening school readiness for Head Start children: Evaluation of a self-regulation intervention. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 30, 20–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.08.001Schoenfeld, A. H. (2016). 100 years of curriculum history, theory, and research. Educational Researcher, 45(2), 105–111. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16639025Schonleber, N. (2011). Hawaiian culture-based education and the Montessori approach: Overlapping teaching practices values, and worldview. Journal of American Indian Education, 50(3), 5-25.Schreibman, L., Dawson, G., Stahmer, A. C., Landa, R., Rogers, S. J., McGee, G. G., Kasari, C., Ingersoll, B., Kaiser, A. P., Bruinsma, Y., McNerney, E., Wetherby, A., & Halladay, A. (2015). Naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions: Empirically validated treatments for autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord, 45(8), 2411-2428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015- 2407-8Senk, S. L., & Thompson, D. R. (2003). Standards-based school mathematics curricula. What are they? What do students learn? Erlbaum.Seo, K.-H., & Ginsburg, H. P. (2004). What is developmentally appropriate in early childhood mathematics education? In D. H. Clements, J. Sarama, & A.-M. DiBiase (Eds.), Engaging young children in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics education (pp. 91–104). Erlbaum.Shea, Z. M., & Jenkins, J. M. (2021). Examining heterogeneity in the impacts of socio-emotional curricula in preschool: A quantile treatment effect approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 624320. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624320Shepard, L. A. (2005). Assessment. In L. Darling-Hammond & J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world (pp. 275–326). Jossey-Bass.Shure, M. B., & Spivack, G. (1980). Interpersonal problem solving as a mediator of behavioral adjustment in preschool and kindergarten children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 1(1), 29-44.Sim, Z. L., & Xu, F. (2017). Learning higher-order generalizations through free play: Evidence from 2- and 3-year-old children. Developmental Psychology, 53(4), 642–651. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000278Simon, M. A. (1995). Reconstructing mathematics pedagogy from a constructivist perspective. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 26(2), 114–145. https://doi.org/10.2307/749205Skemp, R. (1976). Relational understanding and instrumental understanding. Mathematics Teaching, 77, 20–26.Skene, K., O'Farrelly, C. M., Byrne, E. M., Kirby, N., Stevens, E. C., & Ramchandani, P. G. (2022). Can guidance during play enhance children's learning and development in educational contexts? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Development, 93(4), 1162-1180. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13730Skrtic, T.M., Saatcioglu, A., & Nichols, A. (2021). Disability as status competition: The role of race in classifying children. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 7. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231211024398Smith, C. (1998). Children with "special rights" in the preprimary and infant-toddler centers of Reggio Emilia. In C. Edwards, GL. Gandini, & G. Forman (Eds.), The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia Approach--advanced reflections (2nd ed.) 199-214. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-83Snider, K., & Vartuli, S. (2020). Curriculum research on the project approach: Illuminating the "what" and the "how' of teaching and learning. In J.H. Helm & K.A. Snider (Eds.), Growing child intellect: The manifesto for engaged learning in the early years. Teachers College Press.Snider, K., Holley, M., & Usman, A. (2017). Final report: Project ABC2—Adults building capacities for young children. Commissioned program evaluation report for Project ABC2—Adults building capacities for young children. Kansas City, MO: Mid-America Head Start Metropolitan Council on Early Learning.Solem, M., Huynh, N. T., & Boehm, R. (Eds.). (2015). Learning progressions for maps, geospatial technology, and spatial thinking: A research handbook. National Center for Research in Geography Education. http://www.amazon.com/Learning-Progressions-Geospatial-Technology- Thinking/dp/1443874272.Sonnenschein, S., Baker, L., Moyer, A., & LeFevre, S. (2005, April). Parental beliefs about children’s reading and math development and relations with subsequent achievement. Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Atlanta, GA.Souto-Manning, M. (2023). Justice for young children: (Re)considering the role of the research community. Social justice for young children conversation series. https://www.fcd-us.org/blog- justice-for-young-children-reconsidering-the-role-of-the-research-community/Souto-Manning, M., & Rabadi-Raol, A. (2018). (Re)Centering Quality in Early Childhood Education: Toward Intersectional Justice for Minoritized Children. Review of Research in Education, 42(1), 203- 225. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18759550Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Starnes, L. P. (2017). Effects of social-emotional education on pre-kindergarten student academic achievement [Doctoral Dissertation, Liberty University]. http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2681&context=doctoralSteffe, L. P., & Cobb, P. (1988). Construction of arithmetical meanings and strategies. Springer-Verlag.Steinbrenner, J. R., McIntyre, N., Rentschler, L. F., Pearson, J. N., Luelmo, P., Jaramillo, M. E., Boyd, B. A., Wong, C., Nowell, S. W., Odom, S. L., & Hume, K. A. (2022). Patterns in reporting and participant inclusion related to race and ethnicity in autism intervention literature: Data from a large- scale systematic review of evidence-based practices. Autism: the International Journal of Research and Practice, 26(8), 2026-2040. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211072593Stites, M. L., & Rakes, C. R. (2019, October). Mathematical interventions for young children: One size does not fit all. Paper presented at the Division for Early Childhood Annual Conference, Dallas, TX.Størksen, I., Rege, M., Solli, I. F., ten Braak, D., Lenes, R., & Geldhof, G. J. (2023). The playful learning curriculum: A randomized controlled trial. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 64, 36-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.01.015Sullivan, P., Askew, M., Cheeseman, J., Clarke, D., Mornane, A., Roche, A., & Walker, N. (2015). Supporting teachers in structuring mathematics lessons involving challenging tasks. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 18(2), 123-140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10857-014-9279-2Sundqvist, P. (2017, Oct 8-10). Challenges of teaching technology in the preschool. TENZ–ICTE Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand.Sung, J., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2018). Longitudinal relationship between early academic achievement and executive function: Mediating role of approaches to learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 171-183. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.010Superfine, A. C., Kelso, C. R., & Beal, S. (2010). Examining the process of developing a research-based mathematics curriculum and its policy implications. Educational Policy, 24 Number November(6), 908-934. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904809351690Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Taner Derman, M., Şahin Zeteroğlu, E., & Ergişi Birgül, A. (2020). The effect of play-based math activities on different areas of development in children 48 to 60 months of age [Article]. SAGE Open, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020919531 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-84Tharp, R. G. (1982). The effective instruction of comprehension: Results and description of the Kamehameha Early Education Program. Reading Research Quarterly, 71(4), 503-527.Tharp, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social contexts. Cambridge University Press.Tharp, R. G., Estrada, P., Dalton, S. S., & Yamauchi, L. A. (2003). Research evidence: Five standards for effective pedagogy and student outcomes. Technical Report No. GJ. Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence. University of California.The Design-Based Research Collective. (2003). Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 5–8.The Incredible Years. (2024). www.incredibleyears.comThompson, N. L., Hare, D., Sempier, T. T., & Grace, C. (2008). The development of a curriculum toolkit with American Indian and Alaska Native communities. . Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(5), 397–404. http://www.joycerain.com/uploads/2/3/2/0/23207256/curriculum_toolkit_early_education.pdfToran, M., Aydin, E., & Etguer, D. (2019). Investigating the effects of STEM enriched implementations on school readiness and concept acquisition of children. Elementary Education Online, 19(1), 299- 309. https://doi.org/doi:10.17051/ilkonline.2020.656873Towson, J. A., Gallagher, P. A., & Bingham, G. A. (2016). Dialogic reading: Language and preliteracy outcomes for young children with disabilities. Journal of Early Intervention\, 38(4), 230–246.Trawick-Smith, J., Swaminathan, S., & Liu, X. (2016). The relationship of teacher child play interactions to mathematics learning in preschool. Early Child Development and Care, 186(5), 716–733. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2015.1054818Trotman Scott, M., Wright, B.L., & Ford, D.Y. (2018). The book matters: Using the color-coded Bloom- Banks matrix to support the literacy and engagement of Black boys. In E. Moore, Jr., Michael, A., & Penick-Parks, M.W. (Eds.), The guide for White women who teach Black boys (pp. 358-364). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.Tullis, P. (2011). The death of preschool. Scientific American Mind, 22(5), 36–41.Unterman, R., & Weiland, C. (2019). Quantifying and predicting variation in the medium-term effects of oversubscribed prekindergarten programs. New Yor, NY: MDRC. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13308Upshur, C. C., Heyman, M., & Wenz-Gross, M. (2017). Efficacy trial of the Second Step Early Learning (SSEL) curriculum: Preliminary outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 50, 15– 25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.03.004Upshur, C. C., Wenz-Gross, M., & Reed, G. (2013). A pilot study of a primary prevention curriculum to address preschool behavior problems [In Press]. The Journal of Primary Prevention. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-013-0316-1van Oers, B. (2010). Emergent mathematical thinking in the context of play. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 74(1), 23–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-009-9225-xvan Oers, B., & Poland, M. (2012). Promoting abstract thinking in young children’s play. In B. van Oers (Ed.), Developmental Education for Young Children (Vol. 7, pp. 121–136). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4617-6_8Vartuli, S., Bolz, C., & Wilson, C. (2014). A learning combination: Coaching with CLASS and the project approach. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 16(1).Vaughn, S., Kim, A.-H., Sloan, C. V. M., Hughes, M. T., Elbaum, B., & Sridhar, D. (2003). Social skills interventions for young children with disabilities: A synthesis of group design studies. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 2–15.Vecchi, V. (2002). Theater curtain: The ring of transformations. Reggio Children.Verschaffel, L., Bojorquea, G., Torbeyns, J., & Van Hoof , J. (2019). Persistence of the Building Blocks’ impact on Ecuadorian children’s early numerical abilities. Paper presented at the EARLI 2019, Aachen University, Germany. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-85Vinh, M., Strain, P., Davidon, S., & Smith, B. J. (2016). One State’s Systems Change Efforts to Reduce Child Care Expulsion. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 36(3), 159-164. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121415626130Vitiello, V. E., & Greenfield, D. B. (2017). Executive functions and approaches to learning in predicting school readiness. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 53(Supplement C), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.08.004Wagner, C. J. (2023). Toward a shared conception of children’s content area identities in literacy, math, and science: A systematic integrative review. Review of Educational Research. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543231184888Wakabayashi, T., Andrade-Adaniya, F., Schweinhart, L. J., Xiang, Z., Marshall, B. A., & Markley, C. A. (2020). The impact of a supplementary preschool mathematics curriculum on children's early mathematics learning. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 53, 329-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.04.002Walker, D. F. (1992). Methodological issues in curriculum research. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 98–118). Macmillan.Watts, T. W., Jenkins, J. M., & Dodge, K. A. (2023). Understanding heterogeneity of the impact of public preschool programs. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 88(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12456Webster-Stratton, C., & Bywater, T. (2019). The Incredible Years® series: An internationally evidenced multimodal approach to enhancing child outcomes. In APA handbook of contemporary family psychology: Family therapy and training (Vol. 3, pp. 343-359). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000101-021Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, J.M., & Hammond, M. (2001). Preventing conduct problems, promoting social competence: A parent and teacher training partnership in Head Start. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 283-302.Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, M.J., & Stoolmiller, M. (2008). Preventing conduct problems and improving school readiness: Evaluation of the Incredible Years teacher and child training programs in high-risk schools. Journal of Chil Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 471-488.Weiland, C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2013). Impacts of a prekindergarten program on children’s mathematics, language, literacy, executive function, and emotional skills. Child Development, 84(6), 2112–2130. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12099Weiland, C., McCormick, M., Mattera, S., Maier, M., & Morris, P. (2018). Preschool curricula and professional development features for getting to high-quality implementation at scale: A comparative review across five trials. AERA Open, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858418757735Weisberg, D. S., Kittredge, A. K., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Klahr, D. (2015). Making play work for education. Phi Delta Kappan, 96(8), 8–13.Wellen, L. (2018). A classroom for all students: Project-based learning. Lutheran Education Journal(Spring 2018), 10. https://lej.cuchicago.edu/files/2018/05/LEJ_Spring_2018_Final_Draft_W- Cover.pdf#page=57Welsh, J. A., Bierman, K. L., Nix, R. L., & Heinrichs, B. N. (2020). Sustained effects of a school readiness intervention: 5th grade outcomes of the Head Start REDI program. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 53, 151-160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.03.009Wetherill, M. S., Bourque, E. E., Taniguchi, T., Love, C. V., Sisk, M., & Jernigan, V. B. B. (2021). Development of a tribally-led gardening curriculum for indigenous preschool children: The FRESH study. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 53(11), 991–995. https://www.jneb.org/article/S1499-4046(21)00754-5/fulltextWhat Works Clearinghouse. (2013). Second step [not online]. Institute of Education Sciences. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Intervention/792Whitcomb, S. A., & Merrell, K. W. (2012). Understanding implementation and effectiveness of Strong Start K-2 on social-emotional behavior. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-011-0490-9 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-86Whitehurst, G. J. (2009). Don’t forget curriculum. Brown Center on Education Policy, The Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/dont-forget-curriculum/Whittaker, J. V., Kinzie, M. B., Williford, A., & DeCoster, J. (2015). Effects of MyTeachingPartner– Math/Science on teacher–child interactions in prekindergarten classrooms. Early Education and Development, 27(1), 110-127. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.1047711Wilson, S. J., Dickinson, D. K., & Rowe, D. W. (2013) Impact of an Early Reading First program on the language and literacy achievement of children from diverse language backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(3),578-592.Wright, B. L., & Counsell, S. L. (2018). The Brilliance of Black Boys: Cultivating School Success in the Early Grades. Teachers College Press.Wright, B.L., Ford, D.Y., & III, Moore, J.L. (2022). Black boys are lit: Engaging prek-3 gifted and talented Black boys using multicultural literature and Ford’s Bloom-Banks Matrix. Information Age Publishing, IncWright, T. S., & Gotwals, A. W. (2017a). Supporting disciplinary talk from the start of school: Teaching students to think and talk like scientists. The Reading Teacher, 71(2), 189–197.Wright, T. S., & Gotwals, A. W. (2017b). Supporting kindergartners’ science talk in the context of an integrated science and disciplinary literacy curriculum. Elementary School Journal, 117(3), 513–537.Wright, T. S., & Gotwals, A. W. (2023). Supporting integrated instruction in science and literacy in K–2 classrooms. In S. Q. Cabell, S. B. Neuman, & N. P. Terry (Eds.), Handbook on the science of early literacy. Guilford.Wu, T., McCormick, M., Weiland, C., Hsueh, J., Sachs, J., & Snow, C. (2023). What sustains the pre-K boost? New evidence from Boston Public Schools. Boston Early Childhood Research Practice Partnership.Xu, C., Di Lonardo Burr, S., & LeFevre, J.-A. (2023). The hierarchical relations among mathematical competencies: From fundamental numeracy to complex mathematical skills. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology / Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cep0000311Yalçın, V., & Erden, Ş. (2021). The Effect of STEM Activities Prepared According to the Design Thinking Model on Preschool Children's Creativity and Problem-Solving Skills. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41, 100864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100864Yıldırım, B. (2020). Preschool STEM activities: Preschool teachers’ preparation and views. Early Childhood Education Journal, 49, 149-162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-020-01056-2Yoon, J., & Martin, L. A. (2019). Infusing culturally responsive science curriculum into early childhood teacher preparation. Research in Science Education, 49, 697-710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-017- 9647-xYoshikawa, H., Weiland, C., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2016). When does preschool matter? The Future of Children, 26(2), 21–35. www.futureofchildren.org/publications/journals/journal_details/index.xml?journalid=87Yoshikawa, H., Weiland, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Burchinal, M. R., Espinosa, L. M., Gormley, W. T., Ludwig, J., Magnuson, K. A., Phillips, D. A., & Zaslow, M. J. (2013). Investing in our future: The evidence base on preschool education. New York, NY: Foundation for Child Development and Ann Arbor, MI: Society for Research in Child Development. http://fcd-us.org/resources/evidence-base- preschool www.srcd.org/policy-media/policy-updates/meetings-briefings/investing-our-future- evidence-base-preschoolZangori, L., & Forbes, C. T. (2014). Scientific practices in elementary classrooms: Third-grade students’ scientific explanations for seed structure and function. Science Education, 98(4), 614–639.Zelazo, P. D., Craik, F. I. M., & Booth, L. (2004). Executive function across the life span. Acta Psychologica, 115(2-3), 167–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.005Zhai, F., Raver, C. C., & Jones, S. M. (2012). Academic performance of subsequent schools and impacts of early interventions: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial in Head Start settings. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(5), 946–954. Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs

DEVELOPING HIGH-QUALITY, EQUITABLE PRESCHOOL CURRICULA 4-87Zhai, F., Raver, C. C., & Jones, S. M. (2015). Social and emotional learning services and child outcomes in third grade: Evidence from a cohort of Head Start participants. Child and Youth Services Review, 56, 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.06.016Zigler, E., Gilliam, W. S., & Barnett, W. S. (Eds.). (2011). The pre-K debates: Current controversies and issues. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Company.Zippert, E. L., Eason, S. H., Marshall, S., & Ramani, G. B. (2019). Preschool children's math exploration during play with peers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101072Zosh, J. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2018). Playing to learn mathematics. In A. Pyle (Ed.), Play-based learning (pp. 33-37). Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development. http://www.child- encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/dossiers-complets/en/play-based-learning.pdf#page=33Zucker, T. A., Cabell, S. Q., Justice, L. M., Pentimonti, J. M., & Kaderavek, J. N. (2013). The role of frequent, interactive prekindergarten shared reading in the longitudinal development of language and literacy skills. Developmental Psychology, 49(8), 1425–1439.Zucker, T. A., Carlo, M. S., Landry, S. H., Masood-Saleem, S. S., Williams, J. M., & Bhavsar, V. (2019). Iterative design and pilot testing of the developing talkers tiered academic language curriculum for pre-kindergarten and kindergarten. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 12(2), 274-306. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2018.1519623Zucker, T. A., Jacbos, E., & Cabell, S. Q. (2021). Exploring barriers to early childhood teachers’ implementation of a supplemental academic language curriculum. Early Education and Development, 32(8), 1194-1219.Zucker, T. A., Maldonado, G. Y., Assel, M., McCallum, C., Elias, C., Swint, J. M., & Lal, L. (2022). Informal science, technology, engineering and math learning conditions to increase parent involvement with young children experiencing poverty [Brief Research Report]. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1015590 Prepublication Copy, Uncorrected Proofs